Orientalistic Discourse on Sufism (Tasawwuf): A Study of R.

A
Ncholson and A.J Arberry

Literature Review
Presentation

Tajamul Ahmad Sheikh

Junior Research Fellow,
Islamic Studies
Many works by different authors relating to this topic are available. Each has tried to
interpret the things according to his/her own way of thinking and understanding. Some of
the available books are as follows:

1. “The Mystics of Islam” is a 1914 book by R.A. Nicholson, published by

Routledge, Kegan Paul, London. This book has long been recognized as a
classic and definitive introduction to the message of Sufism. In this short
but comprehensive work, the author provides an easy approach to the
study of Islamic mysticism. He gives a broad outline of Sufism and
describes the key principles, methods and characteristic features of the
inner life as it has been lived by Muslims of every class and condition
from the 8th century onwards. Many quotations are given, mainly in the
author's own fine translations from the original Arabic and Persian.
2. “Studies in Islamic Mysticism” is a 1921 book by R.A. Nicholson, published
by Cambridge University press. In this book, Professor Nicholson examines
the life, work and teaching of three of the most important of the early Sufis -
the Persians Abú Sa'íd (937-1049) and Al-Jílí (1365-1406), and the Cairene
(Egyptian) Arab Ibnu l-Fárid (1182-1235). These great mystics were almost
legendary figures; possessors of occult or natural and mysterious powers,
whose tombs became holy shrines. They were regarded in effect as saints, but
saints canonised by the people while still living, not posthumously by the
church. Sufism, as Professor Nicholson suggests, lies at the heart both of the
religious philosophy and the popular religion of Islam.
3. “Rumi: Poet and Mystic” is a very famous book about Mulana Jalalu'l-
Din Rumi written by Reynolds A. Nicholson in 1920, published in
England by Oneworld in 1998 . This book is important and significant
because it is forwarded by noble laureate, Rabindra Nath Tagore. It is a
delightful text which includes an introduction to Rumi life and each
selection of poetry is accompanied by illuminating descriptive notes. The
book, Rumi: Poet and Mystic reveals Rumi’s attraction, fascination, charm
and intensity of thought more than in any other book.
4. “Kashf al-Mahjub” is a very famous Persain book of Sufism by famous
saint of Subcontinent Ali Hujwiri Daata Ganj Bakhsh, translated by R. A.
Nicholson, published by Taj Company, Delhi, 1982. The author in this
book takes an expository approach. Mystical controversies and current
opinions are illustrated where many are clarified by presenting his
experiences.
5. “Sufism: An account of the Mystics of Islam” is a 1950 book by
A.J.Arberry, published by George Allen and Unwin in London. The author
in this book offers insights into every aspect of Islam, from interpretation
of the word of Allah and the life of Prophet ‫ﷺ‬, to
considerations of ascetics and mystics. Most importantly, this book puts
Sufism at the heart of Islam and shows that Sufism is not, as some have
argued, extraneous to the Islamic belief. In other words the author says that
Sufism has some similarities with other mystical aspects of other religions
but it is a completely or totally a product of Islam.
6. “The Doctrine of the Sufis: Abu Bakr Al-Kalabadi” is a 1935 book by

A.J.Arberry, published by Cambridge University Press. The author, A. J.

Arberry, has taken a great effort to preserve the delicacy, attractiveness and

simplicity of the original, without departing from aliteral translation. Indeed

Arberry has presented a model translation of Kitab at-ta‘arruf to

contemporary Sufi-literary world. A.J. Arberry says the book was primarily

written for two purposes: to advocate the Sahu (sober) school of Sufi thought

and to assure adherents of orthodox Islam that Sufism does not contradict

their beliefs. The second point was of special importance, as Sufism was in

danger of being declared as heresy.

7. “A Sufi Martyr: The Apologia of 'Ain al-Qudat al- Hamadhani” is a
1969 book by A.J. Arberry, published by George Allen and Unwin Limited
in London. This volume was composed by an eminent Sufi mystic whilst
in prison in Baghdad, awaiting execution, in a vain attempt to overthrow
his sentence; he was put to death in AD 1311 at the age of 33. This
apologia is a document of great poignancy, composed in most elegant
Arabic and translated with the customary skill and elegance for which A.J.
Arberry became so well known.
8. “Sufi Martyrs of Love: Chishti Sufism in South Asia and Beyond” is a
2002 book by Carl Ernst and Bruce Lawrence, published by Palgrave
Press, New York. This book offers a critical perspective on Western
attitudes towards Islam and Sufism, clarifying its contemporary
importance, both in the West and in traditional Sufi homelands. Finally, it
provides access to the voices of Sufi authorities, through the translation of
texts being offered in English for the first time.
9. “Eternal Garden: Mysticism History and Politics at a South Asian Sufi
Center” is a 2004 book by Carl W. Ernst, published by Oxford University
Press, New Delhi. This book is based on rare Persian manuscripts
preserved in Sufi shrines in the medieval town of Khuldabad, a major
centre of pilgrimage in the Indian Deccan, reveals the mystical teachings
and practice of the Chishti Sufi order as taught by the ecstatic Shaykh
Burhan al-Din Gharib (d.1337) and his disciples. This second edition has a
preface in which Ernst details the advances in the study of Sufism since the
appearance of this path-breaking book.
10. “Following Muhammad: Rethinking Islam in the Contemporary World”
is a 2003 book by Carl W. Ernst, published by University of North Carolina
Press, Chapel Hill, North Carolina. Avoiding the traps of sensational
political exposes and specialized scholarly Orientalism, Carl Ernst
introduces readers to the profound spiritual resources of Islam while
clarifying diversity and debate within the tradition. Framing his argument in
terms of religious studies, Ernst describes how protestant definitions of
religion and anti-Muslim prejudice have affected views of Islam in Europe
and America. He also covers the contemporary importance of Islam in both
its traditional settings and its new locations and provides a context for
understanding extremist movements like fundamentalism. He concludes
with an overview of critical debates on important contemporary issues such
as gender and veiling, state politics, and science religion.
11. “Words of Ecstasy in Sufism (Sunny Series in Islamic Spirituality)”, is a
1985 book by Carl W. Ernst, published by State University of New York
Press, Albany. This book is the first in-depth study in English of the import
and impact of ecstatic utterances (Shathiyat) in classical Islamic
mysticism. It makes available an important body of mystical aphorisms or
sayings and reveals not only significance of these sayings in the Sufi
tradition, but also explains their controversial impact on Islamic law and
society.
12. “The Shambhala Guide to Sufism”, is a 1997 book by Ernst, published
by Shambhala Publications, Boston 1997. This is an outstanding piece of
research on Sufism in academic research. It is an important work of Carl
Ernst in the field of Sufism. In this work Ernst presents an attractive
general idea of the significance of Sufi practices, interpretation, and
philosophy. The important thing in this book is that Ernst has analyzed the
Sufi terminology in lucid way.
13. “Mystical Dimensions of Islam”, is a 1975 book by Annemarie Schimmel, published by
University of North Carolince Press, Chapel Hill. In this book "Mystical Dimensions of
Islam" the author presents, a balanced historical treatment of the transnational phenomenon
of Sufism—Islamic mysticism, from its beginnings through the nineteenth century. Through
her sensitivity and deep understanding of the subject, Annemarie Schimmel, an eminent
scholar of Eastern religions, draws the reader into the mood, the vision, the way of the Sufi in
a manner that adds an essential ingredient to her analysis of the history of Sufism. After
exploring the origins of the mystical movement in the meditations of orthodox Muslims on
the Koran and the prophetic tradition, the author then discusses the development of its
different stages, including classical voluntarism and postclassical theosophical mystical
trends. Particular emphasis is placed on spiritual education, the different ways of leading the
mystic toward the existential realization of the profound mystery of the profession of faith
that "there is no deity but God." Sufi psychology and Sufi orders and fraternities are
comprehensively explored. Through an examination of mystical anthropology, which
culminates in the veneration of the prophet and the saints, the questions of free will and
predestination, of good and evil, are implied.
13. “Sufism: A Short Introduction” is a 2000 book by William C. Chittick, published
by Oneworld Publication. This book gives a fresh and revealing perspective on the
teaching and beliefs of Sufism and its proponents. Areas covered include: the
history and growth of Sufism, and its relationship to Islam; the mystical and
spiritual properties of music and dance; the beautiful and captivating qualities of
Sufi writing, with many examples; the beliefs, practices and philosophies of Sufism
as seen through the eyes of several major figures; Sufism in the modern world.
14. “Early Islamic Mysticism: Sufi, Qur'an, Mi'raj, Poetic and Theological Writings”
is a 1995 book by Michael Anthony, published by Paulist Press, New York. The first
centuries of Islam saw the development of Sufism as one of the world's major mystical
traditions. Although the later Sufi writings by mystics such as Rumi are known and
available in translation, access to the crucial early period of Islamic mysticism has
been far more limited. This volume opens with an essay on the place of spirituality
within the Islamic tradition. Immediately following are the foundation texts of the pre-
Sufi spirituality: the Qur'an passages most important to the mystical tradition; the
accounts of Prophet Muhammad's ‫ﷺ‬heavenly ascent (Mi'raj); and the
crucial work of early poets in setting a poetic sensibility for speaking of union with the
divine beloved.
15. “As Through a Veil: Mystical Poetry in Islam” is a 2001book by Annemarie
Schimmel, published by Columbia University Press, New York. This book presents
the complicated story of how a poetic tradition evolved in a number of different
languages over a period of twelve hundred years. It involves the history of Sufism,
the tensions between mysticism and orthodoxy in Islamic thought and the problem
of interpreting a poetic language which is both sensual and sacred.
16. “The Path of God's Bondsmen from Origin to Return” is a 1982 book by Najm
Al-Din Razi (translated by Hamid Algar), published by Delmar. As unusually
comprehensive survey of the main concerns of Sufism, this book is a summation of
the Sufi tradition as it had developed by the seventh/thirteenth century. It first
discussed the theoretical bases of Sufism, showing in conclusive detail their
grounding in the Qur’an and the exemplary model of the Prophet Muhammad
‫ﷺ‬. It then turns to an examination of man’s inner morphology - the
soul, the heart, and the spirit - the means of advancement on the Sufi path, and the
supra-sensory phenomena that accompany spiritual progress.
17. “Essays on Islamic Piety and Mysticism” is a 1999 book by Fritz Meier,
published by Brill, Leiden. This book provides for the first time a translation of 15
of Fritz Meier's seminal articles. The selected articles deal with the history of
Sufism; Sufi morals and practices such as dhikr and samā‘; the historical
development of the master-disciple relationship; Ibn Taymiyya's attitude toward
Sufism; pious devotional practices such as making use of the tasliya; essential
sources for the history of Sufism in the Maghreb (Northwest Africa) and the
Almoravids . 
18. “The Heritage of Sufism” is a 1999 book by Leonard Lewisohn, published by
Oneworld Publications, London. Covering the key achievements of the Muslim
intellectual and cultural tradition in history, mysticism, philosophy, and poetry, this
unique collection shows the positive role played by Sufi thinkers between 700 and
1300.
19. “Islamic Mysticism: A Short History” is a 1999 book by Alexander Knysh,
published by Brill, Leiden. This book provides a general survey of the history of
Islamic mysticism (Sufism) since its inception up to the modern time. It combines
chronological and personality-based approaches to the subject with a thematic
discussion of principal Sufi notions and institutions. The book emphasizes the wide
variety of Sufism's interactions with the society and its institutions from an ascetic
withdrawal from the world to an active involvement in its affairs by individual Sufi
masters and organizations.
20. “Teachings of Sufism” is a 1999 book by Carl W. Ernst, published by Shambala
Publications, Boston. The prose and verse readings in this book were chosen to
interest the many people who have become attracted to Sufi teachings through their
exposure to popular Sufi poetry, music, and dance. The selections—mostly from
the Middle East and India, ranging from the tenth to the twentieth century—
provide a sampling of Sufi thought on some of the basic aspects of this spiritual
path. 
21. “Oriental Mysticism” is a 2003 book by E.H Palmer, published by Kessinger
Publishing, LLC. This is a concise study of the key concepts of Sufi philosophy,
written in the mid-19th century. The author in this book discusses the spiritual
journey that Sufis take, the path to oneness with God. A very useful feature of this
book is the glossary of poetic symbols used in Persian Sufi literature.
22. “Studies in Early Mysticism in the Near & Middle East” is a 1995 book by
Margaret Smith, published by Oneworld Publication. This book is an exploration
of the relationship between the rise and development of a mystical element in
Islam, known as Sufism, and the mysticism that was already to be found within the
Christian Church of the Near and Middle East, at the time when Arab power was
establishing itself and the faith of Islam was in the process of formulation and
development. In this earliest period of Islamic mysticism, the contacts between
Christianity and Islam were at their closest. The book presents the mystics'
teachings and allows their own writings to speak for them, to celebrate the shared
devotion and inspiration of these two great religious traditions.
23. “Pathways to an Inner Islam” is a 2010 book by Patrick Laude, published by SUNY Press,
New York. This book provides an introduction to the esoteric or spiritual “inner Islam”
presented by Western thinkers Louis Massignon, Henry Corbin, René Guénon, and Frithjof
Schuon. Particularly interested in Sufism—the mystical tradition of Islam—these four
twentieth-century authors who wrote in French played an important role in presenting Islamic
spirituality to the West and have also had an influence in parts of the Muslim world, such as
Turkey, Iran, and Pakistan. The author, Patrick Laude brings them together to argue that an
understanding of their inner Islam challenges reductionist views of Islam as an essentially
legalistic tradition and highlights its spiritual qualities. The book discusses their thought on
the definitions of spiritual Islam and Sufism, the metaphysical and mystical understanding of
the Prophet and the Qur'ān, the function of femininity in Islamic spirituality, and the inner
understanding of jihād. In addition, the writers’ Christian backgrounds and their participation
in the intellectual and spiritual traditions of both Christianity and Islam offer a dynamic
perspective on interfaith dialogue.
24. “Sufi Essays” is a 1972 book by Seyyed Hossein Nasr, published by SUNY Press,
New York. This book combines scholarly research into certain aspect of Sufi doctrines
and history with a penetrating account of the spiritual and metaphysical message and
significance of Sufism as a living spiritual tradition. In an original discussion, unlike
anything that has appeared before in studies of Sufism, the author places special accent
on the pertinence (applicability) of Sufi teachings to the most acute contemporary
problems. The book addresses itself to both the ever-increasing Western public
interested in Sufism and to the Western-educated Muslim interested in his own
spiritual heritage. Dr. Nasr draws on his intimate knowledge of the Sufi literature in
Arabic and Persian as well as his first-hand knowledge of Sufi tradition itself to
produce this further volume in his numerous studies on the different facets of Islam.
25. “Insights into Islamic Esoterism” is a 2004 book by Rene Guenon, published by
Sophia Perennis . This small volume brings together a number of Guénon’s early
articles relating to Sufism (tasawwuf), or Islamic esoterism. A later article, ‘Islamic
Esoterism’, has also been included, since it articulates so well the particularities of
initiation in Islam by defining the fundamental elements
of tasawwuf: shari’ah, tariqah, haqiqah.
26. “Principles of Sufism” is a 1992 book by B.R. Von Schlegell, published by Mizan
Press. Principles of Sufism includes all sections of the Risala concerning the
fundamental principles of Sufism; it omits only the biographical notices at the
beginning of the work and various highly technical matters at its end. One of the
most widely read Sufi treatises in Arabic, the Risala defines classical Sufism
through the use of quotations from the Qur'an, the Prophetic Traditions and
reference to the exemplary behaviour of the ascetics and saints. Al-Qushayri
illustrates the principles of Sufism with tales and sayings of the first generation of
Muslims and of his contemporaries in the 5th/11th century. Readers are given a rich
account of what Sufism as a way of life implied for the early Muslims.
27. “Sufism: An Introduction to the Mystical Tradition of Islam” is a 2011 book by Carl W.
Ernst, published by Shambala Publications, Boston. The Sufis are as diverse as the countries
in which they've flourished—from Morocco to India to China—and as varied as their
distinctive forms of art, music, poetry, and dance. They are said to represent the mystical
heart of Islam, yet the term Sufism is notoriously difficult to define, as it means different
things to different people both within and outside the tradition. With that fact in mind, Carl
Ernst explores the broadest range of Sufi philosophies and practices to provide one of the
most complete and comprehensive introductions to Sufism available in English. He traces the
history of the movement from the earliest days of Islam to the present day, along the way
examining its relationship to the larger world of Islam and its encounters with both
fundamentalism and secularism in the modern world.
28. “Sufis and Anti-Sufis: The Defence, Rethinking and Rejection of Sufism in the Modern
World” is a 1998 book by Elizabeth Sirriyeh, published by Routledge, London. Despite its
continuing appeal in the Muslim world, Sufism has faced fierce challenges in the last 250
years. This volume assesses the evolution of anti-Sufism since the middle of the eighteenth
century and Sufi strategies for survival. It also considers the efforts of a few significant
Muslim intellectuals to contemplate a future for a mystical approach to Islam without
traditional Sufism. Many studies of Islam in the modern period have focused on the attempts
of Muslim 'modernists' or 'fundamentalists' to come to terms with western modernity, and
Sufis have often been marginalised in the process. In this book, the author Elizabeth Sirriyeh
redresses this neglect by assigning to Sufism a central place in the broader history of Islam in
the modern world and by examining how changing understandings of Sufism's role in modern
conditions have affected Muslims of all shades of opinion. 
29. “An Introduction to Sufism” is a 1995 book by Titus Burckhardt, published by
Thorsons. This introduction to the study of the doctrines of Sufism provides
seekers with a clear understanding of the mystical tradition of Islam. The work
defines the nature of Sufism, discusses it in relation to Christian mysticism and
Hinduism, examines its foundations and ends with the elements of operative
Sufism. Drawing on his scholarship, Burckhardt provides a comprehensive and
clearly organized overview to Sufism.
29. “An Introduction to Sufism” is a 1995 book by Titus Burckhardt, published by
Thorsons. This introduction to the study of the doctrines of Sufism provides
seekers with a clear understanding of the mystical tradition of Islam. The work
defines the nature of Sufism, discusses it in relation to Christian mysticism and
Hinduism, examines its foundations and ends with the elements of operative
Sufism. Drawing on his scholarship, Burckhardt provides a comprehensive and
clearly organized overview to Sufism.
30. “Islamic Mysticism” by Victor Danner, Source: Studies in Comparative Religion
(The First English Journal on Traditional Studies- established 1963), Vol. 10, No. 1.
(Winter, 1976), published by World Wisdom, Inc. The author in this article says,
Sufism is often defined as "Islamic mysticism," which is an appropriate designation,
providing that the term "mysticism" is rightly understood. If by mysticism we mean
the most spiritual teachings and practices that derive from a given Revelation, then
Sufism is indeed Islamic mysticism. But if we mean by mysticism something that is
vague and obscure, and perhaps even abnormal, then Sufism is not mysticism at all,
if only because it is the most intelligent, the most crystal-clear, and the most
normative dimension of the Islamic religion. He says Sufism has always considered
itself to be the very heart of Islam.
31. “Sufism in the Light of Orientalism” by Algis Uzdavinys, Source: Acta
Orientalia Vilnensia (Journal) Vol. 6, No.2 (2005): 114 – 125.The author, in this
article offers a discussion of the problems regarding different interpretations of
Sufism, especially those promoted by the 19th century Orientalists and modern
scholars. Contrary to the prevailing opinions of those European writers who
“discovered” Sufism as a kind of the Persian poetry-based mysticism, presumably
unrelated to Islam, the Sufis themselves (at least before the Western cultural
expansion) regarded Sufism as the inmost kernel of Islam and the way of the
Prophet himself.
32. “Islamic Spirituality: Foundations” is a 1991 book by Seyyed Hossein Nasr,
published by Routledge and Kegan Paul, London. A broad-ranging, illustrated,
scholarly treatment of core topics in Islamic spirituality. This book discusses the
foundations of Sufism, including the Qurân, the Hadith, pilgrimage, and prayer, as
well as a study of the rise of Islam. The companion book Islamic Spirituality:
Manifestations delves more deeply into the different ways that Sufism is lived out
around the world, with attention to the various sects and their writings.
33. “Words of Ecstasy in Sufism” is 1985 by Carl W.Ernst, published by State
University of New York Press. This book is the first in depth study in English of
the import and impact of ecstatic utterances (shathiyat) in classical Islamic
mysticism. It makes available an important body of mystical aphorisms and reveals
not only the significance of these sayings in the Sufi tradition, but also explains
their controversial impact on Islamic law and society.
34. “Historical Dictionary of Sufism” is a 2005 book by John Renard, published by
Scarecrow Press, UK. With more than 3,000 entries and cross-references on the
history, main figures, institutions, theory, and literary works associated with Islam's
mystical tradition, Sufism, this dictionary brings together in one volume extensive
historical information that helps put contemporary events into a historical context.
35. “Sufism in the West” is a 2006 book by Jamal Malik and John Hinnells, published
by Routledge, London. This book bringing together leading international
authorities to survey the history of Islamic mysticism in North America and
Europe, this book further elaborates the ideas and institutions which organize
Sufism and folk-religious practices.
35. “Sufism in the West” is a 2006 book by Jamal Malik and John Hinnells, published
by Routledge, London. This book bringing together leading international
authorities to survey the history of Islamic mysticism in North America and
Europe, this book further elaborates the ideas and institutions which organize
Sufism and folk-religious practices.
36. “Mysticism: A Study in the Nature and Development of Spiritual
Consciousness” is a 2006 book by Evelyn Underhill, published by Oneworld
Publications, England. Mysticism is usually thought of as an intense state involving
personal unification with the Divine or Ultimate Reality. By its very nature, it is an
ineffable experience, impossible to put into words. It is not impossible, however, to
study the phenomenon, with an eye towards understanding not only its nature and
manifestations, but its relationship to spirituality in general. This book is such a
study widely considered the best book on mysticism for the general reader, this
classic volume assembles a broad range of information scattered among
monographs and textbooks in many languages.
37. “Qur’anic Sufism” is 2009 book by Mir Valiuddin, published by Motilal
Banarsidass, Delhi. This book aims at outlining the fundamental tenets of Sufi
mysticism, which derived its inspiration from the teachings of the Quran and
developed as a process of spiritual culture within the framework of Islam. The
discussion opens with an introduction acquainting the readers with various attempts
at a definition of Sufism and an appreciation of what it holds out for its adherents. 
 Journals
1.“Journal of Sufi Studies”, Published by E.G. Brill.

http://booksandjournals.brillonline.com/content/journals/22105956/2/1

2. “Sufism: An Enquiry”, Published by International Association of Sufism, United Nations.

http://sufismjournal.org/

3. “Mystic Thoughts- Research Journal of Sufism and Peace”, published by University of

Sind, Pakistan.

http://sujo.usindh.edu.pk/index.php/Mytic-Thoughts

4. “Sufi: Journal of Mystical Philosophy and Practice”, published by Khaniqahi Nimatullahi

Publications, Washington DC.

https://www.sufijournal.org/about-sufi-journal/

5. “Journal of Muhyiddin Ibn ‘Arbi Society”, published by Muhyiddin Ibn 'Arabi Society, UK.

http://www.ibnarabisociety.org/journals.html
 Journals Cont.
6. “Journal of Islamic Studies”, published by Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies.

https://academic.oup.com/jis/searchresults?page=1&q=sufism&fl_SiteID=5474&SearchSource
Type=1&allJournals=1

7. “International Journal of Spiritual Studies”, published by IUST Awantipora, Pulwama.

8. “Islamic Studies”, published by IIUI, Pakistan.

http://iri.iiu.edu.pk/index.php/journals-2/

9. “Hamdard Islamicus”, Published by Hamdard Foundation, Pakistan.

http://hamdardfoundation.org/hamdard-islamicus/

10. “Intellectual Discourse”, Published by IIUM, Malaysia

http://journals.iium.edu.my/intdiscourse/index.php/islam
THANKS