Fluid Mechanics & Fluid Machines

KME302

Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

KULDEEP SINGH
KIET Group of Institutions
 Content
• Introduction
• Significance
• History
• Dimensions and Unit
• Definition
• Properties
 Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

Fluid Mechanics = Fluid + Statics + Kinematics + Kinetics

Analytical Fluid Dynamics (AFD) Experimental FD (EFD) Computational FD (CFD)

 INTRODUCTION

Fluid mechanics deals with liquids and gases in motion or at rest.

Fluid dynamics: Fluid mechanics is also referred to as fluid dynamics by considering
fluids at rest as a special case of motion with zero velocity.
Hydrodynamics: The study of the motion of fluids that can be approximated as
incompressible (such as liquids, especially water, and gases at low speeds).
Hydraulics: A subcategory of hydrodynamics, which deals with liquid flows in pipes
and open channels.
Gas dynamics: Deals with the flow of fluids that undergo significant density changes,
such as the flow of gases through nozzles at high speeds.
Aerodynamics: Deals with the flow of gases (especially air) over bodies such as
aircraft, rockets, and automobiles at high or low speeds.
 Fluid Mechanics
• Fluids essential to life
– Human body 65% water
– Earth’s surface is 2/3 water
– Atmosphere extends 17km above the earth’s
surface

• Affects every part of our lives

 Significance
• Fluids omnipresent
– Weather & climate
– Vehicles: automobiles, trains, ships, and planes,
etc.
– Environment
– Physiology and medicine
– Sports & recreation
– Many other examples!
 Weather & Climate
Tornadoes Thunderstorm
 Vehicles
Aircraft Surface ships

High-speed rail Submarines

 Environment
Air pollution River hydraulics
 Physiology and Medicine
Blood pump Ventricular assist device
 Sports & Recreation
Water sports Cycling

Auto racing Surfing

Wind Farm (Maharastra)
Fluid Mechanics is beautiful
 History
Faces of Fluid Mechanics

Archimedes Newton Leibniz Bernoulli Euler

( 287-212 BC) (1642-1727) (1646-1716) (1667-1748) (1707-1783)

Navier Stokes Reynolds Prandtl Taylor

(1785-1836) (1819-1903) (1842-1912) (1875-1953) (1886-1975)
 IMPORTANCE OF DIMENSIONS AND UNITS

• IMPORTANCE OF DIMENSIONS AND UNITS- Any physical quantity

can be characterized by dimensions.
• The magnitudes assigned to the dimensions are called units.
• Some basic dimensions such as mass m, length L, time t, and
temperature T are selected as primary or fundamental dimensions,
while others such as velocity V, energy E, and volume V are expressed
in terms of the primary dimensions and are called secondary
dimensions, or derived dimensions.
• Metric SI system: A simple and logical system based on a decimal
relationship between the various units.
• Work = Force × Distance 1 J = 1 N·m 1 cal = 4.1868 J
Definition of Stress
• Consider a small area  δA on the surface of a body (Fig. 1.1). The force
acting on this area is  δF. This force can be resolved into two
perpendicular components
• The component of force acting normal to the area called normal force
and is denoted by  δFn
• The component of force acting along the plane of area is called tangential
force and is denoted by δFt

Fig. 1.1 Normal and Tangential Forces on a surface

Definition of Stress
• When they are expressed as force per unit area they are called as normal stress
and tangential stress respectively. The tangential stress is also called shear
stress

• The normal stress

And shear stress

Definition of Fluid
• A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously in the face of tangential
or shear stress, irrespective of the   magnitude of shear stress. This
continuous deformation under the application of shear stress constitutes
a flow.

• In this connection fluid can also be defined as the state of matter that
cannot sustain any shear stress.

Fig 1.2 Shear stress on a fluid body

• If a shear stress τ is applied at any location in a fluid, the element 011' which is
initially at rest, will move to 022', then to 033'. Further, it moves to 044' and
continues to move in a similar fashion.

• In other words, the tangential stress in a fluid body depends on velocity of

deformation and vanishes as this velocity approaches zero. A good example is
Newton's parallel plate experiment where dependence of shear force on the
velocity of deformation  was established.
 Distinction Between Solid and Fluid
Solid
More Compact Structure
Attractive Forces between the molecules
are larger therefore more closely packed
Fluid
Less Compact Structure
Attractive Forces between the molecules
are smaller therefore more loosely packed

Solids can resist tangential stresses in static Fluids cannot resist tangential stresses in
condition static condition
Whenever a solid is subjected to shear stress Whenever a fluid is subjected to shear stress
• It undergoes a definite deformation α or • No fixed deformation
breaks • Continuous deformation takes place
• α is proportional to shear stress upto until the shear stress is applied
some limiting condition

Solid may regain partly or fully its original A fluid can never regain its original shape,
shape when the tangential stress is removed once it has been distorted by the shear
stress
Comparison of Solids, Liquids, and Gases
Fluid properties

• Property: Any characteristic of a

system.
• Some familiar properties are
pressure P, temperature T,
volume V, and mass m.
• Properties are considered to be
either intensive or extensive.
• Intensive properties: Those that
are independent of the mass of a
system, such as temperature,
pressure, and density.
• Extensive properties: Those
whose values depend on the size
— or extent—of the system.
 Mass, weight, and density

The mass of an object is defined as a measure of its resistance to acceleration, i.e.,

resistance to a change in velocity. For an object of fixed mass, the relationship between
acceleration, a, force, F, and mass, M, is given by Newton’s second law:

The weight of an object, W, is the magnitude of the force acting on the object due to
Earth’s gravity field.

Fluids differ in their resistance to acceleration in proportion to their density. The density of a
fluid, ρ, may be determined by dividing the mass of a sample of that fluid by its volume V
 Mass, weight, and density

The reciprocal of density is called specific volume, υ:

• As a thermodynamic property of a fluid, density has a certain numerical

value defined by the pressure and temperature of the fluid. This
relationship is expressed by an equation of state.

• Since pressure and temperature are generally functions of position and

time in a flow, density must also be a function of position and time.

• Thus density, pressure, and temperature are flow properties.

Influence of Molecular Weight on Fluid Density at STP

The density of a gas at a given pressure and temperature is proportional

to its molecular weight
Specific Gravity
• If you work for an international corporation and your product list contains
dozens of different fluids, you will have a significant number of density values
at STP to deal with, and these may be given in a number of different units.
• Placed in this situation, you might want to use a dimensionless, and therefore
unit-less, measure of density.
• This fluid property, known as specific gravity, sg, is defined as the ratio of a
fluid’s density to that of a standard reference fluid (water for liquids, air for
gases) at STP.
• Thus, for gases, we define the specific gravity as

while for liquids, we write

 Surface tension…
• A liquid–gas interface. The liquid
molecules (represented by solid
coloured spheres) are packed in a semi-
orderly fashion (atoms in a crystalline
solid are packed in a highly ordered
fashion).
• The molecules in the interior of the
liquid, including molecule I, generally
have six nearest molecular neighbours in
the plane of the paper.
• In contrast, liquid molecules at the liquid
surface, such as molecule S have only
four nearest molecular neighbours in the
plane of the paper. This difference in
number of nearest neighbours result in a
surface tension or equivalently a surface
energy at any fluid interface.
Surface tension…
Surface Tension Values for Various Fluid Systems at Room Temperature

• Mercury turns into droplets readily due to high surface tension

• The magnitude of the surface tension is a function of the fluids on both sides of the
interface.
 Pressure Jump Across a Curved Interface

• Schematic illustration of the vertical force balance on a hemispherical portion of a liquid

bubble suspended in gas.
• The sum of the surface tension, σ, and the uniform pressure, p, acting on the outside of the
bubble must be balanced by the higher pressure, p+p, acting on the inside of the bubble.
• If the drop is at rest, then Newton’s second law tells us that the sum of the forces acting on
the interface in any direction must be zero.
Pressure Jump Across a Curved Interface

• The only forces acting on the interface are those due to pressure and surface
tension.
• The net action of a uniform pressure inside a hemisphere is as if the same pressure
acted on the equatorial plane of area πr2 (projected area).
• Surface tension acts on the circumference of the hemisphere, 2πr.
• If we let p be the pressure difference, inside minus outside, then the force
equilibrium condition just stated becomes
Problem

Show that pressure difference in soap

bubble is
Contact Angle and Wetting

Schematic diagrams of a liquid in contact with a solid and a gas.

(A) The relevant force balance at the contact line.
(B) Example of a liquid wetting a solid as defined by a contact angle θc <90 ◦.
(C) In contrast, the liquid does not wet the solid, since θc >90◦.

The air–water–glass system forms a contact angle of ∼0 ◦ so that water wets glass. In
contrast, the air–mercury–glass system forms a contact angle of ∼140 ◦ so that Hg does
not wet the glass.
Contact Angle and Wetting…
The effect of surface tension is evident
in the contact angle θc, defined to be
the angle in the liquid between the
solid surface and the interface at the
contact line. The net surface tension
acting on a contact line depends on all
three materials—liquid, gas, and solid.
A force balance on the contact line
shows that

• Where σSG is the surface tension of the gas–solid interface, σ SL is the surface tension
of the solid–liquid interface, and σ is the surface tension of the gas–liquid interface.
• Experimental observations show that the contact angle for an air–water–glass
interface is ∼0◦ , while the contact angle for a air–mercury–glass interface is
∼140◦.
• If the contact angle is less than 90◦, the surface is said to be wetted by the liquid.
Perfect wetting occurs if the contact angle is ∼0◦.
• If the contact angle is greater than 90◦, the surface is not wetted by the liquid.
Capillary Action

The capillary action in a solid tube depends on the contact angle associated with the
corresponding gas–liquid–solid system.
(A) When the liquid wets the solid (θc <90◦), the liquid level within the tube will be
above the liquid–gas interface outside the tube.
(B) When the liquid does not wet the solid (θc >90◦), the liquid level within the tube
will be below the general liquid–gas interface.
(C) Enlarged view of the case in (A) including the terms associated with the force
balance on the liquid within the capillary tube.
Capillary Action…
• The column is at rest, so the sum of all forces acting on the fluid column is zero.
The pressure acting on the top of the meniscus formed in the tube is
atmospheric. The pressure acting at the bottom of the liquid column inside the
tube is also atmospheric, because lines of constant pressure in a stationary
fluid in a gravity field are horizontal, and the tube is open.
• Since atmospheric pressure acts over an area equal to the cross section of the
tube at each end, the net effect of pressure on the liquid column is zero.
• The surface tension force acting up on the contact line, plus the force of gravity
on the liquid column acting down must therefore add to zero.
• From the geometry at the contact line we find

Solving for the height of capillary rise, we have

Bulk modulus & Compressibility
• When a fluid is subjected to a pressure increase, the volume decreases, and the
density increases.
• For many fluids the pressure–volume relationship is linear and may be characterized
by a proportionality constant called the bulk compressibility modulus, EV.
• The relationship between a change in pressure, dp, and the corresponding fractional
change in specific volume, dυ/υ, is written in terms of E V as:

The minus sign is necessary because a positive change in pressure (a pressure

increase) results in a negative change in volume (a volume decrease). Since
−dυ/υ=dρ/ρ, above may be written as

This equation can be rearranged to define the bulk modulus as

Thanks

Properties continued……