Statistical Process Control

By
H.S.Pundle
Statistical Thinking & Application
 Statistical concepts are crucial to quality
management & are the key in dealing
with processes & their inherent
variation.
Statistical Process Control
 Prevents occurrence of defectives by
exercising control over process; rather
than inspection.
 Most common device is control chart
developed by Shewart in 1931.
 Visual display of statistically significant
changes that may occur in a process.
Statistical Thinking & Application
 Statistic is a science concerned with
collection; organization; analysis;
interpretation & presentation of data.
 Simply knowing statistical tools & methods is
not enough. Managers need to think
statistically.
 Variation exists in all processes.
Understanding & reducing variation are keys
to success.
Principals Underlying Process Control
 1) Variability is inherent in any process:
 No 2 parts are exactly identical; though
they may be interchangeable.
 This is recognized; and therefore tolerance.
 2) Variation pattern of industrial process
fit into normal curve:
 Bell shape curve; Standard deviation,
mean…etc.
Principals Underlying Process Control
 3) Total variability is composed of 2 parts:
 Internal to the process & external to the process.
 Internal variability is inherent to the process; due
to chance causes.
 External variation is due to assignable causes.
These can be traced & corrected.
 Chance causes result in insignificant variations
(both +ve & -ve). May cancel each other.
 Assignable causes are few. Can result in large
amount of variation.
 Control charts help in identifying assignable
causes before it develops component defective.
Principals Underlying Process Control
 4) Manufacturing process is expected to
produce within Upper Control Limit
(ULC) & Lower Control Limit (LCL).
 Good process with mean shifted (Centering
not good).
 Inadequate process (High process
variability).
Statistical Thinking & Application
 Common causes of variation are result of
design of production system & can only be
reduced if the system is redesigned (better
technology is used).
 Special (assignable) causes arise from
external sources that are not inherent in the
process. These can be easily detected using
statistical methods & economical to correct.
x, r Chart
Individual measurement

Sub 1 2 3 4 5 x r
group
1 25.00 25.01 25.00 25.03 25.01 25.01 0.03

2 25.00 25.03 25.00 25.04 25.03 25.02 0.04

3 25.01 25.02 25.02 25.03 25.02 25.02 0.02

4 25.01 25.02 25.02 25.01 25.04 25.02 0.03

5 25.02 25.02 25.03 25.03 25.00 25.02 0.03

x, r Chart
Sub 1 2 3 4 5 x r
group
6 25.06 25.03 25.02 25.00 24.99 25.02 0.07

7 24.99 24.98 25.02 25.02 24.99 25.00 0.04

8 25.02 25.01 25.01 24.99 25.02 25.01 0.03

9 25.03 25.01 24.97 25.01 25.03 25.01 0.06

10 25.02 24.99 24.99 24.98 24.97 24.98 0.05

x, r Chart
 For x chart:
 UCL= x +A2*R
 LCL = x –A2*R
 For R Chart:
 UCL=D4*R
 LCL= D3*R
 From the tables:
 A2=0.5768 D3=0 D4=2.114
 Process Capability
 Process limits

 Specification limits

 How do the limits relate to one another?

Process Capability Index, Cpk
Capability
CapabilityIndex
Indexshows
showshow
how
well
wellparts
partsbeing
beingproduced
producedfit
fit  X  LTL UTL - X 
into
intodesign
designlimit C pk 
= min  or 
limit 3  3 
specifications.
specifications.  

As
As aa production
production
process
process produces
produces
items
items small
small shifts
shifts in
in
equipment
equipment or or
systems
systems can
can cause
cause
differences
differences inin
production
production
performance
performance fromfrom
differing
differing samples.
samples. Shifts in Process Mean
 Process Capability – A Standard Measure of How
Good a Process Is.

A simple ratio:
Specification Width
_________________________________________________________

Actual “Process Width”

Generally, the bigger the better.
 Process Capability

 X  LTL UTL  X 
C pk  Min ; 
 3 3 

This is a “one-sided” Capability Index

Concentration on the side which is closest to
the specification - closest to being “bad”
 The Cereal Box Example

 We are the maker of this cereal. Consumer reports has just

published an article that shows that we frequently have
less than 15 ounces of cereal in a box.
 Let’s assume that the government says that we must be
within ± 5 percent of the weight advertised on the box.
 Upper Tolerance Limit = 16 + .05(16) = 16.8 ounces
 Lower Tolerance Limit = 16 – .05(16) = 15.2 ounces
 We go out and buy 1,000 boxes of cereal and find that they
weight an average of 15.875 ounces with a standard
deviation of .529 ounces.
Cereal Box Process Capability

 X  LTL UTL  X 
 Specification or C pk  Min ; 
Tolerance Limits  3 3 
 Upper Spec = 16.8 oz
 Lower Spec = 15.2 oz
15.875  15.2 16.8  15.875 
 Observed Weight C pk  Min ; 
 Mean = 15.875 oz  3(.529) 3(.529) 
Std Dev = .529 oz
C pk  Min.4253; .5829


C pk  .4253
What does a Cpk of .4253 mean?

 An index that shows how well the units

being produced fit within the specification
limits.
 This is a process that will produce a
relatively high number of defects.
 Many companies look for a Cpk of 1.3 or
better… 6-Sigma company wants 2.0!
Difference between Cp & Cpk
 Cp – determines capability of producing to specification
 Cpk – same as Cp, but also measures how centered the process is
 It is important to look at both!

Cp > 1.67 Cp > 1.67

Cpk > 1.67 Cpk < 1.00

Capable, Capable,
Centered Not Centered

LSL USL LSL USL

Cp < 1.00 Cp < 1.00

Cpk < 1.00 Cpk < 0

Not Capable, Not Capable,

Centered Not Centered

LSL USL LSL USL

Acceptance Criteria
Acceptance criteria for critical vs. non-critical characteristics

Critical Non-Critical Decision

Red (Bad) <1.33 <1.00
Yellow (OK) 1.33-1.67 1.00-1.33

Green (Good) >1.67 >1.33

Cpk must be greater than or equal to

1.67 for critical processes

Cpk must be greater than or equal to

1.33 for non-critical processes
Types of Statistical Sampling
 Attribute (Go or no-go information)
 Defectives refers to the acceptability of
product across a range of characteristics.
 Defects refers to the number of defects per
unit which may be higher than the number of
defectives.
 p-chart application

 Variable (Continuous)
 Usually measured by the mean and the
standard deviation.
 X-bar and R chart applications
Control Charts for Attributes
 Control Chart for Fraction Defective
(p charts)
 Control Chart for Number Defective
(np chart).
p Charts
Sample No. 1 2 3 4 5

No. of defectives 2 3 2 0 2
n
Fraction 0.04 0.06 0.04 0 0.04
defective p

Sample No. 6 7 8 9 10

No. of defectives 3 2 1 2 3
n
Fraction 0.06 0.04 0.02 0.04 0.06
defective p
p Charts
 p= p/n
 UCL/LCL=p+3* p(1-p)/n
Sampling
 Inspection is of 2 types:
 100% & Sampling.
 Weakness of 100% Inspection:
 Involves huge cost.
 Time consuming.
 Not suitable for destructive tests.
 Mistakes due to repetitive nature.
Acceptance Sampling
 A sample is drawn at random from lot.
 If sample confirms to specification
whole lot is accepted. Otherwise it is
rejected.
 Acceptance is based on inference drawn
based on sample. Technique is known
as Acceptance Sampling.
Acceptance Sampling
 OC Curve – Operating Curve
Characteristic.
 AQL – Acceptance Quality Level.
 LTPD – Lot Tolerance Percentage
Defective.
OC Curve
OC Curve
Use of Sampling Plans
 Single Sampling Plan:
 Lot Size N= 4,000
 Sample size n= 80
 AQL c=2
 LTPD= c+1
 Double Sampling Plan:
 Lot size N=4,000
 Sample size n1=50 n2=50
 AQL c1=1 c2=3
 LTPD r1=3 r2=4
Multiple Sampling Plan N=4,000
Sampl Sample Cum Accept Rejection
e size Sample ance No.
Stage size No.
1 n1=20 20 0 4
2 n2=20 40 1 6
3 n3=20 60 3 8
4 n4=20 80 5 10
5 n5=20 100 7 11
6 n6=20 120 10 12
7 n7=20 140 13 14