CRYOGENICS

(Refrigerasi temperatur sangat rendah)

The word cryogenics comes from the Greek word "kryos," meaning cold;
combined with a shortened form of the English verb "to generate,"

Cryogenics is the science of producing and studying low-temperature

environments.
Cryogenics The branches of physics and engineering that involve the study
of very low temperatures, how to produce them, and how materials behave at
those temperatures.

Cryogenics Temperatures range is below the point at which permanent gases

(Helium, Hydrogen, Neon, Oxygen, Nitrogen) begin to liquefy ( < – 150 o C
(123 K )

Normal boilling point dari beberapa gas permanen (Helium, Hydrogen, Neon,
Oxygen, Nitrogen dan udara) berada dibawah – 150 o C

Normal boilling point Freon Refrigerant, hydrogen sulfida, ammonia dan

refrigerant konvensional lainnya berada diatas – 150 o C

9/18/20 CRYOGENIC REFRIGERATION 1

Cryobiology The branch of biology involving the study of the effects of
low temperatures on organisms (most often for the purpose of
achieving cryopreservation).

Cryosurgery The branch of surgery applying very low temperatures

(down to -196 °C) to destroy malignant tissue, e.g. cancer cells.

Cryonics The emerging medical technology of cryopreserving humans and

animals with the intention of future revival

Cryoelectronics The field of research regarding superconductivity at low

temperatures. Cryotronics The practical application of cryoelectronics
 Some typical low temperature
Temperature
Celsius Absolute
( º C) (K)
Tropics 45 318
Human body 37 310
Room temperature 20 293
Ice point 0 273
Salt + water (cryogen) - 18 255
Antarctic winter - 50 223
Solid carbon dioxide - 78 195
Liquid oxygen - 183 90
Liquid nitrogen - 196 77
Liquid helium - 269 4
Absolute zero - 273 0

9/18/20 CRYOGENIC REFRIGERATION 3

 Normal boiling point and latent heat of fluids

 Water : 373 K 2256 kJ/kg

 Ethylene : 169 K 481 kJ/kg
 Krypton : 120 K 116 kJ/kg
 Methane : 111 K 512 kJ/kg
 Xenon : 110 K 99 kJ/kg
 Oxygen : 90 K 213 kJ/kg
 Argon : 87 K 162 kJ/kg
 Nitrogen : 77 K 199 kJ/kg
 Neon : 27 K 86 kJ/kg
 Hydrogen : 20 K 443 kJ/kg
 Helium : 4.2 K 21 kJ/kg

9/18/20 CRYOGENIC REFRIGERATION 4

 Logarithmic temperature scale

 Cryogenic
Cryogenictemperature
temperature ATMOSPHERIC
TEMPERATURES

HIGH HIGH
CRYOGENICS TEMP. PLASMAS FUSION ENERGY
PARTICLES

4
He
3
He SUPER SUPER BOILING POINTS
FLUID TC FLUID TC
LOWEST
TEMPERATURES 4
He N2 H 2O W
RECORDED

K
10-8 10-6 10-4 10-2 1 102 104 106 108 1010 1012

9/18/20 CRYOGENIC REFRIGERATION 5

 Cold environment on earth

9/18/20 CRYOGENIC REFRIGERATION 6

9/18/20 CRYOGENIC REFRIGERATION 7
 Why cryogenics ?
 Brittleness at low temperature
 Small latent heat of cryogen
 Small electrical resistance (metal)
 Big thermal conductivity (pure material)
 Small specific heat
 High vacuum techniques
 Special temperature sensors

Field of cryogenic engineering

Developing and improving
• Low temperature techniques
• Processes
• equipment

include studying the properties of materials at cryogenic temperatures. The

mechanical and electrical properties of many materials change very
dramatically when cooled to 100K or lower.

9/18/20 CRYOGENIC REFRIGERATION 8

 For example, rubber, most plastics, and some metals become exceedingly brittle,
and nearly all materials contract.
In addition, many metals and ceramics lose all resistance to the flow of electricity, a
phenomenon called superconductivity.
Very near absolute zero (2.2K) liquid helium undergoes a transition to a state of
superfluidity, in which it can flow through exceedingly narrow passages with no
friction

APPLICATION OF CRYOGENIC ENGINEERING

1. Rocket propulsion system

2. Studies in high-energy physics
3. Electronics
4. Mechanical design
5. Space simulation and high-vacuum technology
6. Biological and medical applications (cryobiology, cryosurgery)
7. Food processing
8. Manufacturing processes
9. Recycling of materials

9/18/20 CRYOGENIC REFRIGERATION 9

 Recuperator type (J-T expansion)

Regenerator type (Ericsson or Stirling cycle)

Cryocooler Pulse tube refrigerator

Magnetic refrigerator
NMR / MRI
Dilution refrigerator
Fusion tokamak
Nuclear cooling, Laser cooling
MAGLEV
Superconducting
CRYOGENICS magnets SMES

Superconducting SC generator
(< -150 C) technology
Superconducting SQUID
electronics
NMR probe
Gas separation & liquefaction RF filter
Applications Cryosurgery
Medical applications
Cryopreservation
Cryosensor cooling
Experimental aids
Cryopump

Cryowind tunnel

Space simulation

Material processing

9/18/20 CRYOGENIC REFRIGERATION 10

 LOW –TEMPERATURE PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Mechanical Properties

Ultimate strength

Ultimate strength for

several engineering
materials:( l) 2024-T4
aluminum; (2)
beryllium copper;( 3) K
Monel; (4) titanium; (5)
304 stainlesss teel;( 6)
C1020 carbon steel; (7) 9
percent Ni steel;( 8)
Teflon;( 9) Invar-
36(Durham et al. 1962).

9/18/20 CRYOGENIC REFRIGERATION 11

Yield strength

Yield strength for several engineering materials:( l) 2024-T4 aluminum; (2) beryllium
copper;( 3) K Monel; (4) titanium; (5) 304 stainless steel;(6)C 1020 carbon steel;( 7) 9
percent Ni steel; (8) Teflon; (9) Invar-36 (Durham et al. 1962).

9/18/20 CRYOGENIC REFRIGERATION 12

 Fatigue strength

Fatigue strength at
106 cycles: (l ) 2024-
T4 aluminum; (2)
beryllium copper;
( 3) K Monel;(4)
titanium; (5) 30a
stainlesss teel;(6)
C 1020 carbons teel (
Durham et al. 1962

9/18/20 CRYOGENIC REFRIGERATION 13

Impact
strength

Charpy impact strength at low temperatures(:l ) 2024-T4 aluminum; (2)

beryllium copper;( 3) K Monel; (4) titanium; (5) 30a stainless steel;( 6)
C1020 carbon steel;( 7) 9 percent Ni steel (Durham et al. 1962).
9/18/20 CRYOGENIC REFRIGERATION 14
 Percent elongation for various materials:( l) 2024-T4 aluminum; (2)
beryllium copper; (3) K Monel; (4) titanium; (5) 304 stainless steel;( 6)
C1020 carbon steel;( 7) 9 percent Ni steel (Durham et al. 1962)
9/18/20 CRYOGENIC REFRIGERATION 15
 Young's modulus

Young's modulus at
low temperatures(:l)
2024-T4 aluminum;(2)
beryllium copper;
(3) K Monel; (4)
titanium, (5) 30a
stainless steel;( 6)
C1020 carbon steel;( i)
9 percent Ni steel
(Durham et al. 1962).

9/18/20 CRYOGENIC REFRIGERATION 16

 THERMAL PROPERTIES

Thermal conductivity of
materials at low
temperatures: ( 1) 2024-
T4 aluminum;( 2)
Beryllium copper;( 3) K
Monel;( 4) titanium;(5) 304
stainless steel(; 6) C1020
carbon steel: (7) pure
copper; (8) Teflon (Stewart
and Johnson l96l).

9/18/20 CRYOGENIC REFRIGERATION 17

ELECTRICAL
PROPERTIES

Electrical
resistivity ratio
for several
materials at
low
temperatures:
(l) copper;
(2) silver; (3)
iron; (4)
aluminum
(Stewart and
Johnson l96l).

9/18/20 CRYOGENIC REFRIGERATION 18

 GAS LIQUEFACTION SYSTEMS
The liquefaction of air in the production of oxygen was the first engineering
application of cryogenics

System performance parameters

There are three payoff functions we might use to indicate the performance
of a liquefaction system
1. Work required per unit mass of gas compressed , - W/m
2. Work required per unit mass of gas liquefied, -W/mf
3. Fraction of the total flow of gas that is liquefied, y = mf/m

The last two payoff functions are related to the first one by
(- W/m) = ( - W/mf)Y

In any liquefaction system,, we should want to minimize the work requirements

and maximize the fraction of gas that is liquefied.
The figure of merit (FOM) for a liquefaction system is such a parameter. It is defined
as the theoretical minimum work requirement divided by the actual work
requirement for the system:

The figure of merit is a number between 0 and 1. It gives a measure of how closely
the actual system approaches the ideal system performance. There are several
performance parameters that apply to the components of real systems. These
include:
1. Compressor and expander adiabatic efficiencies.
2. Compressor and expander mechanical efficiencies.
3. Heat-exchanger effectiveness.
4. Pressure drops through piping, heat exchangers and so on.
5. Heat transfer to the system from ambient surroundings
 The thermodynamically ideal system

9/18/20 CRYOGENIC REFRIGERATION 21

The thermodynamically ideal system
In order to have a means of comparison of liquefaction systems through the figure of merit, we shall first
analyze the thermodynamically ideal liquefaction system. This system is ideal in the thermodynamic
sense but it is not ideal as far as a practical system is concerned, as we shall see
later. The perfect cycle in thermodynamics is the Carnot cycle. Liquefaction is essentially an open-system
process; therefore, for the ideal liquefaction system, we shall choose the first two processes In the Carnot
cycle:
a reversible isothermal compression followed by a reversible isentropic expansion. The ideal cycle is
shown on the temperature - entropy plane in Fig. 3.1 along with a schematic of the system.
the gas to-be liquefied is compressed reversibly and isothermally from ambient conditions( point l) to
some high pressure(point 2). This high
pressure is selected so that the gas will become saturated liquid upon reversible isentropic expansion
through the expander (point fl. The final condition at point/is taken at the same pressure as the initial
pressure at point 1.
The pressure attained at the end of the isothermal compression is extremely high-on the order of 70 GPa
or 80 GPa (10? psia) for nitrogen. It is highly impractical to attain this pressure in a liquefaction system,
which is the reason it is not an ideal process for a practical system. In the analysis of each of the
liquefaction systems, w e shall apply the First Law of Thermodynamics for steady flow, which may be
written in general as
 Sampe sini dulu

9/18/20 CRYOGENIC REFRIGERATION 24

where 0"., is the net heat transfer to or from the system (heat transferrec
/o the systemi s consideredp ositive),V V*'rst he net work done on or t'"
the system (work done by the system is considered positive), and thc
summation signs imply that we add the enthalpy terms (fr), kinetic-energ-"
t.r*, (Url2g,.,wn...V is the fluid velocitya nd-g,is the conversion factt':
in Newton'sS econdL aw, g : 1'00k g-m/N-sto t 32'174l b--ft/1b;sec:
and potential-energyte rms (gzlg,, where z is the fluid elevationa bove"
datum planea nd g is the locala ccelerationd ue to gravity,9 '806m /s: o:
li.nqitlr..'ut t* level) for all inlets and outlets of the system' A syster
might consist of several different streams, which would result in mor:
than one inlet and one outlet. In all our system analysis' we shall assurn:
that the kinetic- and potential-energyc hangesa re much smallert han the
enthalpyc hanges(n oi a bad assumption),a nd thesee nergyt erms ma1 b'e
negtecied.T hus,,i n our specialc ase't he First Law for steadyf low ma1 b'-'
written.

Applying the First Law to the system shown in Fig' 3'l'

becauseth e processfr om point 2 to point f is isentropics. : : s,.w heres
is the entrop.vo f the fluid. SubstitutingO * from eqn.( 3.6)i nto eqn.( 3.5)
we may determine the work requirement for the ideal system:

In the ideal system,1 00p ercento f the gasc ompressedis liquefied,o r

rit : ritl;so that f : l. Notice that a liquefaction system rs a work-absorbirzg
system; therefore, the net work requirement is negative (work done
on ttr. system), and the term - W,ln is a positive number.
Equation (3.7) gives the minimum work requirement to liquefy a gas,
so this is the value which we should try to approach in any practical system.
Becausew e have set the final pressurea t point /equal to the initial
pressurea t point 1,a nd point/is on the saturated-liquidc urve,t he idealwork
requirementd ependso nly on the pressurea nd temperaturea t point
1 and the type of gas liquefied. Ordinarily, we take point I at ambient
conditions. Table 3.1 tists ideal-work requirements for some common
gasesw, ith point 1 takena t 101.3k Pa (14.7p sia)a nd 300 K (80'F).
Example3 .1. Determinet he ideal-workr equiremenfto r the liquefactiono f
nitrogenb, eginninga t 101.3k Pa( 14.7p sia)a nd3 00K (80"F)F. romt heT -sd iagram
in Appendix F, we find the following property values
ht : 462J lgat1 01.3kP a( l atm)a nd3 00K
hr:29Jlgat101.3kPa(1atm)andsaturatedliquid
Table 3.1. and i01.3 Ideal-work requirements kPa (14.7 psia
PRODUCTION OF LOW TEMPERATURES
3.3. Joule-Thomsoneffect Most of the practical liquefaction systems utilize an expansion valve or Joule-Thomsonv alve to producel
ow temperaturesI.f we apply the First Law for steady flow to the expansion valve, for zero heat transfer (insulated
valve) and zero work transfer and for negligible kinetic- and potential- energy changes' we find that ft, : hr' '\lthough the flow within
the valve is irreversiblea nd is not an isenthalpicp rocesst,h e inlet and outlet
states do lie on the same enthalpy curve. We could plot a series of points of outlet conditions for given inlet conditions and obtain
lines of constant enthalpy. For a real gas, such a plot is shown in Fig. 3.2. We note that
there is a region in which an expansiont hrough the valve (decreasein pressure) produces an increase in temperature, while in
another region the expansionr esultsi n a decreasein temperatureO. bviously,w e should want to operate the expansion valve in a
liquefaction system in the region where a net decrease in temperature results. The curve that separates these two regions is called
the inversion curve. The effect of change in temperature for an isenthalpic change in pressure is representedb y the Joule-
Thomsonc officient pn, defined by

where the derivative is interpreted as the change in temperature due to a

change in pressure at constant enthalpy. Note that the Joule-Thomson
coefficient is the slope of the isenthalpic lines in Fig. 3.2. The Joule-
Thomson coefficientis zero alongt he inversionc urve becausea point on
the inversion curve is one at which the slope of the isenthalpic line is
zero. For a temperature increase during expansion, the Joule-Thomson
coefficienti s negative;f or a temperatured ecreaset,h e Joule-Thomson
coefficienti s positive.
From calculus, it can be shown that
From basic thermodynamics (Van Wylen and Sonntag 1976), it can be
shown that
An ideal gas would not experience a temperature change upon expansion
through an expansion valve. To the gratification of cryogenic engineers,
gases are imperfect at low enough temperatures and high enough
pressures.
We have seen that an ideal gas always has a zero Joule-Thomson coef l
nversion
9/18/20 CRYOGENIC REFRIGERATION 31
9/18/20 CRYOGENIC REFRIGERATION 32
9/18/20 CRYOGENIC REFRIGERATION 33
9/18/20 CRYOGENIC REFRIGERATION 34
9/18/20 CRYOGENIC REFRIGERATION 35
9/18/20 CRYOGENIC REFRIGERATION 36
9/18/20 CRYOGENIC REFRIGERATION 37
9/18/20 CRYOGENIC REFRIGERATION 38
 Temperature, T

9/18/20 CRYOGENIC REFRIGERATION 39

9/18/20 CRYOGENIC REFRIGERATION 40
9/18/20 CRYOGENIC REFRIGERATION 41
9/18/20 CRYOGENIC REFRIGERATION 42
9/18/20 CRYOGENIC REFRIGERATION 43
9/18/20 CRYOGENIC REFRIGERATION 44
9/18/20 CRYOGENIC REFRIGERATION 45