P-N Diode :

Unbiased p-n diode : The potential is called barrier potential, junction

potential or cut in voltage of a p-n junction and it is of order of 0.7V for
silicon and 0.3V for germanium. It is denoted by Vγ or Vj. The width of the
depletion layer is of the order of 0.5 – 1micron (1micron = 10-6 mtr.).
Vj= VTloge[NAND/ni2] Volts
Where, VT is the volt equivalent of temperature =kT/e ≈ T/11,600

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P-N Diode : It has two terminals, one electrode each from p-region and
n-region hence called diode(Di+electrode).

It is a unidirectional two terminal device.

Biasing of diode : Biasing means the application of external d.c
voltage.Depending upon the polarity of the d.c voltage externally applied
to it, the biasing is classified as forward biasing and reverse biasing of a
diode.
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Forward biasing : If an external d.c voltage is connected in such a way
that the p-region terminal is connected to the positive of the d.c voltage
and the n-region is connected to the negative of the d.c voltage, the
biasing codition is called forward biasing.Knee voltage or cut-in-
voltage(Vγ) is the min. forward voltage at which the current through the
junction starts increasing rapidly. Maximum forward current is the
highest instantaneous forward current that a PN junction can conduct
without damage to the junction.It offers negligible impedance.Very high
current due to majority carrier.
Short Ckt.

R VT= 0.7/0.3V

(c) (top)
(c) (bottom)

(a) (b) 3
Reverse biasing : If an external d.c voltage is connected in such a way
that the p-region terminal of a diode is connected to the negative of the
battery and the n-region terminal of a diode is connected to the positive
terminal of the battery, the biasing condition is called reverse biasing of
a diode.The small current flowing due to the minority carriers, in the
reverse diode is called reverse saturation current and its magnitude is
denoted as Io.The reverse saturation current Io depends on the temp.It
is of the order of nA for Si. and µA for Ge diode.Breakdown voltage is
defined as the reverse voltage at which PN junction breakdown with
sudden rise in reverse current. Peak inverse voltage (PIV) is the
maximum reverse voltage that can be applied to the P-N junction
without damaging the junction.

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It offers high impedance.Negligible current due to minority carrier.
Avalanche breakdown : If reverse biased voltage is made too high, the
velocity of the minority carriers increases.Eventually, the kinetic energy
associated with minority carriers also increases.These carriers collide
with the stable atoms of the crystal and impact the energy to the valence
electrons involved in the covalent bonds.Due to this energy, valence
electrons break covalent bonds and jump to conduction band and are
available as minority carriers.Again these get accelerated due to high
reverse voltage and break more covalent bonds.This chain reaction is
called avalanche effect.These large number of minority carriers give rise
to a very high reverse current.Such a mechanism is called avalanche
breakdown of a diode.The voltage at which breakdown occurs is called
reverse breakdown voltage(VBR).

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V-I Characteristics of PN junction Diode:- V-I characteristics of the diode
is the graph between the voltage applied across its terminals and the
current that flows through the diode due to this applied voltage.

Vγ

few µA or nA

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 Comparison of Si & Ge Diode:-
S. No. Parameter Si Diode Ge Diode

1. Material Used Silicon Germanium

2. Cut-in Voltage 0.7V 0.3V
3. Reverse Saturation In nano Amp In μA
current
4. Effect of temp. Less More

5. Breakdown voltage Higher Lower

6. Application Rectifier, clipper & Low temp.

clamper ckt application

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Resistance of a diode : The resistance offered by the p-n junction while
forward biasing is called forward resistance.The forward resistance is
defined in two ways:
Static forward resistance : This is the forward resistance of p-n junction
diode when diode is used in d.c circuit and the applied voltage is
d.c.This resistance is denoted as Rf and is calculated at a particular
point on the forward characteristics.

Rf = forward d.c voltage

forward d.c current
= Vo/ Io
current(If)
Forward

forward volt.(Vf)

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Dynamic forward resistance : The resistance offered by the p-n junction
diode under a.c condition is called dynamic resistance denoted as rf.It is
the reciprocal of the slope of the forward characteristics.
Consider the change in applied voltage from point A to B and is denoted
by ΔVD and the corresponding change in the forward current is from
point P to Q and is denoted by ΔID.
Therefore rf = ΔVD /ΔID = 1/ (slope of forward characteristics)

A B

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The resistance offered by the p-n junction while reverse biasing is called
reverse resistance.This is defined in two ways :
Reverse static resistance : This is reverse resistance under d.c
conditions, denoted as Rr.It is the ratio of applied reverse voltage to the
reverse saturation current Io.
Rr = applied reverse voltage
reverse saturation current

Reverse dynamic resistance : This is the reverse resistance under the

a.c conditions denoted as rr.It is the ratio of incremental change in the
reverse voltage applied to the corresponding change in the reverse
current.
rr = ΔVR/ ΔIR

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Transition capacitance (CT) : Consider a reverse biased p-n junction
diode
C = εA/ d
Where, ε = permittivity of the dielectric
A = area of plates / area of cross section of junction
d = distance between the plates
CT = dQ/dV
It is of the order of pico farads

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Diffusion capacitance (CD) : During forward biased condition, another
capacitance comes into existence called diffusion capacitance or
storage capacitance denoted as CD.
In forward biased condition, the width of the depletion region decreases
and holes from p side get diffused in n side while electrons from n side
move into the p side.As the applied voltage increases, concentration of
injected charged particles increases.This rate of change of the injected
charge with applied voltage is defined as a capacitance called diffusion
capacitance.
CD = dQ / Dv
The diffusion capacitance can be determined by the expression
CD = τI/ ηVT
where, τ = mean life time of holes / electrons
I = forward current
η = constant = 1 for Ge
= 2 for Si
VT = voltage equivalent of temp. (= T/ 11,600)
Diffusion capacitance is of the order of nano farads to micro farads.
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 P-N Diode Current Equation:-
The diode current equation relating the voltage V and current I for
the forward and reverse bias region can be given as,

I = I0 (e V / ηVT
- 1) ….(1)

Here, I is the diode current,

I0 is the reverse saturation current
η is the constant, η=1 for Ge & η= 2 for Si
V is the external voltage applied to the diode
VT=kT/e = T/11,600 Volt equivalent of temperature
at room temperature T is 300ºk
if the diode is reverse biased then the diode current is,

I  I0 e  V / V T
1  …….(2)
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If V>>VT
then the term e  V /  V T  1
so , I   I 0
This equation is valid as long as the external voltage is below the
breakdown voltage.
 Two parameter I0 & VT are the temp. dependent.
 Reduction in the cut-in voltage takes place with increase in the
temperature.
 Breakdown voltage ,when Temp.
 Reverse Saturation current , when temp.
 Reverse saturation current of Ge diode is three to four times higher
than Si diode.
Reverse saturation current doubles its value for every 10ºC rise in
temperature.

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Application of PN diode:-

1. Rectifier ckts.
2. Clipping and clamping ckt.
3. Voltage multiplier
4. log & antilog amplifier ckt using OP-AMP
5. Freewheel diode

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 DIODE SWITCHING TIMES:-

The total diode reverse recovery time is the sum of storage

time & transition time of a diode.
trr=ts+ tt
Where trr is the reverse recovery time
ts is the Storage time,
tt is the transition time
 the current will be negative and at a measurable level for the
time period ts called storage time
 After the storage time the current gradually decrease to almost
zero, this period is known as transition period
 The reverse recovery time decides the time required to switch
the diode off.

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 the forward recovery time (tfr) is defined as the time required for the
diode current to change from 10 to 90% of its final value when the
diode is switched from off to on state.
 The max. switching frequency fmax is given as,
fmax=1/(10trr)
So trr : fmax

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