Circuits &networks-1 For I EEE-II Semester EEE Students: by K.V.V.P. Chari, Asso. Prof. Eee, Snist

Circuits &Networks-1
for
I EEE- II semester EEE Students
by
K.V.V.P. Chari, Asso. Prof.
EEE, SNIST
Syllabus
• UNIT.1: Introduction to Electric Circuits
• UNIT.2: Network Topology
• UNIT.3: Magnetic circuits
• UNIT.4: Single phase AC circuits
• UNIT.5: Locus diagrams & resonance
• UNIT.6: Network Theorems
UNIT – I
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
• Circuit concept, R-L-C parameters,
• Voltage and current sources, Independent and
dependent sources, Source transformation,
• Kirchoff’s laws, Network reduction techniques, series,
parallel, series – parallel,
• Star- to-delta and Delta-to-star transformation,
• Mesh Analysis, Nodal analysis, Super mesh, Super node
concept.
• V-I relations for passive elements (for square, ramp,
sawtooth and triangle)
UNIT – II
NETWORK TOPOLOGY
• Definitions, Graph, Tree, Basic cutest and
Basic Tieset matrices for planar networks,
• Loop and Nodal methods of analysis of

Networks using graph theory,
• Duality & Dual networks.

UNIT – III
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
• Basic terms, comparison of magnetic and

Electric circuits, composite magnetic
circuit,
• Analysys of series, Parallel magnetic
circuits, Faraday,s laws,
• L,M, Dot convention, K
UNIT – IV
SINGLE PHASE A.C. CIRCUITS
• R.M.S and Average values, Form factor for

different periodic wave forms,
• Steady state Analysis of R, L and C (in series,
parallel and series-parallel combinations) with
sinusoidal excitation,
• Concept of X, Z, B and Y, Phase angle, concept
of P,Q and S and complex power.
UNIT – V
Locus diagrams & resonance
• Locus diagrams of R L and C circuits

with variation of various parameters
in series and parallel,
• Resonance in series, Parallel circuits,
concept of bandwidth and Q-factor
UNIT – VI
NETWORK THEOREMS
• Tellegens, Superposition, Reciprocity,

Thevenin’s, Norton’s, Maximum
Power Transfer Millman’s and
compensation Theorems with D.C.
and A.C. excitation.
Text books:
1. Engineering Circuit Analysis – William Hayt and Jack E
Kemmerly, McGraw Hill 5th Edition, 1993.
2. Circuits & Networks – A.Sudhakar and Shyamamohan
S.Palli, Tata McGraw Hill, 3rd edition.
References:
3. Network Analysis - M.E. Vanvalkenberg, 3rd edition, PHI.
4. Circuit theory (Analysis & Synthesis) – A.Chakravarthy,
Dhanpath Rai & Co., 6th edition.
Ohm’s Law
I=V/R
Where
I = Current (Amperes)
V = Voltage (Volts)
R = Resistance (ohms)
Georg Simon Ohm (1787-1854)

How you should
be thinking
about electric
circuits:
Voltage: a force that
pushes the current
through the circuit (in
this picture it would be
equivalent to gravity)
How you should
be thinking
about electric
circuits:
Resistance: friction that
opposes the flow of
current through the
circuit (rocks in the
river)
How you should
be thinking
about electric
circuits:
Current: the actual
electronics that is
flowing through the
wires of the circuit
(water drops)
The SI System
Base units:
– meter (m), kilogram (kg), second (s), ampere (A)
– also: kelvin, mole, and candela
Derived units:
– work or energy: joule (J)
– power (rate of doing work): watt (W)
– 1 W = 1 J/s
Copyright © 2013 The McGraw-Hill

Companies, Inc. Permission required for 14
reproduction or display.
SI: Units and Prefixes
Any measurement can be expressed in terms
of a unit, or a unit with a “prefix” modifier.
FACTOR NAME SYMBOL

10-9 nano n
10-6 micro μ
10-3 milli m
103 kilo k
106 mega M
Example: 12.3 mW = 0.0123 W =1.23 x 10 -2 W

Charge
• charge is conserved: it is neither created nor
destroyed
• symbol: Q or q; units are coulomb (C)
• the smallest charge, the electronic charge, is
carried by an electron (−1.602×10-19 C) or a
proton (+1.602×10-19 C)
• in most circuits, the charges in motion are
electrons
Ohm’s Law: Resistance
• A (linear) resistor is an element for which
• v=iR
• where the constant R is a resistance.
• The equation is known as “Ohm’s Law.”
• The unit of resistance is ohm (Ω).

Resistors
(a) typical resistors (b) power resistor
(c) a 10 TΩ resistor (d) circuit symbol

The i-v Graph for a Resistor
For a resistor, the plot of current versus voltage
is a straight line:
In this example, the

slope is 4 A / 8 V or
0.5 Ω-1.
This is the graph for a

2 ohm resistor.

Power Absorption
Resistors absorb power: since v=iR
p=vi = v /R = i R 2 2
Positive power means the device is absorbing energy.

Power is always positive for a resistor!

Example: Resistor Power
A 560 Ω resistor is connected to a circuit which
causes a current of 42.4 mA to flow through it.
Calculate the voltage across the resistor and the
power it is dissipating.
v = iR = (0.0424)(560) = 23.7 V
p = i 2R = (0.0424)2(560) = 1.007 W
Wire Gauge and Resistivity
The resistance of a wire is determined by the resistivity

of the conductor as well as the geometry:
R=ρl/A
[In most cases, the resistance of wires can be assumed to be 0 ohms.]

Conductance
• We sometimes prefer to work with the reciprocal
of resistance (1/R), which is called conductance
(symbol G, unit siemens (S)).
• A resistor R has conductance G=1/R.
• The i-v equation (i.e. Ohm’s law) can be written as

i=Gv

Open and Short Circuits
• An open circuit between A and B means i=0.
• Voltage across an open circuit: any value.
• An open circuit is equivalent to R = ∞ Ω.
• A short circuit between A and B means v=0.

• Current through a short circuit: any value.
• A short circuit is equivalent to R = 0 Ω.

Coming in contact with a power transmission line can
ELECTRICAL
prove SAFETY
to be deadly. By touching it, a short circuit can
occur, because the electricity is trying to find a path to
the ground - you can complete the circuit, and it may be
fatal.
Electrical Shock
High voltage power lines carry 50,000V of electricity.
However, amperage is more important to consider.
0.001A will likely not be felt at all, 0.015A to 0.020A will
cause a painful shock and loss of muscle control (which
means you will not be able to let go of the line). Current
as low as 0.1A can be fatal. Electrical Dangers vary,
depending on the situation. When the current can flow
easily, it is more dangerous. Insulators (such as wood,
rubber and air) hamper the flow of electricity.
.
A lightning strike can have 30,000A - more than
enough to kill you. Lightning can also do a lot of
damage to a building. Metal lightning rods that are
connected to the ground with a grounding wire are
fixed on the roof of many buildings to prevent
damage to the building during an electrical storm.
The Canadian Standards Council issues labels
to identify the amount of voltage required to

operate
electrical devices and the maximum current
they use
ELECTRICAL SAFETY
Electrical Safety Reminders ...
 Never handle electrical devices if you are wet or near

water. Moisture is a good conductor of electricity, so avoid
water when working with electricity
 Don't use devices that have a frayed or exposed power
cord and pull on the electrical plug, not the cord
 Always unplug an electrical device before disassembling
it
 Don't put anything into an electrical outlet - except a
proper plug for an electrical device
 Don't overload an electrical circuit, by trying to
operate too many devices at once
 Avoid power lines
 Never remove the third prong from a 3 prong
plug
 Avoid being the target of a lightning strike, by
staying low to the ground (horizon) and away from
trees
 Don't bypass safety precautions when you are in
a hurry
ELECTRICAL SAFETY
Plugs, Fuses and Breakers
The third prong of a 3 prong plug ( ) is a ground wire,

connected to the ground wire of the building, in case of a
short circuit.
Fuses ( ) and circuit breakers ( ) interrupt a

circuit when there is too much current flowing through it.
Fuses contain a thin piece of metal designed to melt if the

current is too high. Circuit breakers, on the other hand, trip a
spring mechanism, which shuts off the flow of electricity
through the circuit, when there is too much current.
Circuit breakers can be reused over and over (provided the cause of the
increased flow is corrected).
Basic Electrical Quantities
• Basic quantities: current, voltage and power
1.Current: time rate of change of electric charge
I = dq/dt
1 Amp = 1 Coulomb/sec
2. Voltage: electromotive force or potential, V
V = W/q
1 Volt = 1 Joule/Coulomb = 1 N·m/coulomb
Lect1 EEE 202 31

Overview of Circuit Theory
• Power is the rate at which energy is being
absorbed or supplied. P = dW/dt
• Power is computed as the product of voltage
and current:
p t   v t  i  t  or P  VI
• 1 Watt = 1 Volt·Amp = 1 Joule/sec
• Sign convention: positive power means that
energy is being absorbed; negative power
means that power is being supplied.
Active and Passive Elements
• Active elements can generate energy
– Voltage and current sources
– Batteries
• Passive elements cannot generate energy
– Resistors
– Capacitors and Inductors (but CAN store energy)
Lect1 EEE 202 33

Energy Storage Elements
• Capacitors store energy in an electric field.
• Inductors store energy in a magnetic field.
• Capacitors and inductors are passive
elements:
– Can store energy supplied by circuit
– Can return stored energy to circuit
– Cannot supply more energy to circuit than is
stored.
Resistors:
Resistors are passive elements that

oppose/restrict the flow of current.
A voltage is developed across its

terminal, proportional to the current
through the resistor.
V = IR
Units: Ohms (Ω)

35
Resistors
• A resistor is a circuit element that dissipates
electrical energy (usually as heat)
• Real-world devices that are modeled by
resistors: incandescent light bulbs, heating
elements (stoves, heaters, etc.), long wires
• Resistance is measured in Ohms (Ω)
Lect1 EEE 202 36

•Inductors
•Inductors is the passive element that opposes
sudden change in current.
•Inductor stores certain energy in the presence of
magnetic field.
The voltage across an inductor is proportional
to the rate of change of current. V=L(di/dt)
Units for inductance is : henrys(H)
•Inductors
Inductors
• Inductance occurs when current flows through
a (real) conductor.
• The current flowing through the conductor sets
up a magnetic field that is proportional to the
current.
• The voltage difference across the conductor is
proportional to the rate of change of current.
• The proportionality constant is called the
inductance, denoted by L.
Inductors
+
di (t )
The
rest
i(t)
v(t )  L
of L v(t)
dt
the
circuit -
t
1
i (t )   v(t )dt
L 
Where i(t0) is
t
called the 1
initial current i (t )  i (t0 )   v(t )dt
of the inductor. L t0
Inductors
• The current through an inductor cannot
change instantaneously.
• The energy stored in the inductor is given by
1 2
wL (t )  Li (t )
2
Inductors
• An inductor is made of a coil of conducting wire
N A
2
L
l
Ch06 Capacitors and Inductors 42

Inductors
N 2 A
L
l
  r 0
 0  4  10 7 (H/m)
N : number of turns.
l :length.
A:cross  sectional area.
 : permeability of the core

Inductors
(a)air-core
(b) iron-core
(c) variable iron-core

Capacitors:
•behave like a tiny rechargeable battery.

(store energy and release it later. )
• are made of two parallel conductors
separated by a
dielectric.
• The ability of a capacitor to store charge
is called “Capacitance”
• C = Q/V (amount of charge
stored/applied voltage)
45
Capacitors:
• The unit of capacitance is the Farad.
Commonly used capacitances are much
smaller than 1 Farad,
micro-Farads (10-6 Farad, μF),
nano-Farads (10-9 Farad, nF),
pico-Farads (10-12 Farad, pF).
Capacitors
• Capacitance occurs when two conductors
are separated by a dielectric (insulator).
• Charge on the two conductors creates an
electric field that stores energy.
• The voltage difference between the two
conductors is proportional to the charge.
q  t   C v t 
• The proportionality constant C is called
capacitance.
Capacitors
The +
dv(t )
i (t )  C
i(t)
rest
v(t)
of
the
dt
circuit -
t
1
v(t )   i ( x)dx
C 
t
1
v(t )  v(t 0 )   i ( x)dx
C t0
Capacitors
• The voltage across a capacitor cannot change
instantaneously.
• The energy stored in the capacitors is given by
1 2
wC (t )  Cv (t )
2
• A capacitor consists of two conducting plates
separated by an insulator (or dielectric).
Parallel Plate Capacitor

Capacitors
• Three factors affecting
the value of capacitance:
εA
1. Area: the larger the area, C
the greater the d
capacitance.
   r 0
2. Spacing between the
plates: the smaller the  0  8.854  10 (F/m)
12
spacing, the greater the

capacitance.
3. Material permittivity: the
higher the permittivity, the
greater the capacitance.
Capacitors
(a)Polyester capacitor,
(b) Ceramic capacitor,
(c) Electrolytic capacitor
Capacitors
Variable
capacitors

Resistors in Series
Two elements are in series if the current that
flows through one must also flow through the
other.
Series
R1 R2
Resistors in Series
Consider two resistors in series with a voltage
v(t) across them:
i(t) Voltage division:

R1
v1 (t )  v(t )
+ +
R1 v1(t) R1  R2
-
v(t) R2
v2 (t )  v(t )
+
R2 v2(t) R1  R2
- -
Resistors in Series
• If we wish to replace the two series resistors
with a single equivalent resistor whose voltage-
current relationship is the same, the equivalent
resistor has a value given by
Req  R1  R2
Resistors in Series
• For N resistors in series, the equivalent resistor
has a value given by
R1
R2 Req
R3
Req  R1  R2  R3    RN
Resistors in Parallel
• When the terminals of two or more circuit
elements are connected to the same two
nodes, the circuit elements are said to be in
parallel.
Parallel
Two elements are in parallel if they are
connected between (share) the same two
(distinct) end nodes.
R1
R1
R2
R2
Parallel Not Parallel
Lect1 EEE 202 59

Consider two resistors in parallel with a voltage
v(t) across them:
i(t) Current division:

R2
i1 (t )  i (t )
+
i1(t) i2(t)
R1  R2
v(t) R1 R2 R1
i2 (t )  i (t )
R1  R2
-
• If we wish to replace the two parallel resistors
with a single equivalent resistor whose voltage-
current relationship is the same, the equivalent
R1 R2
Req 
R1  R2
• For N resistors in parallel, the equivalent
R1 R2 R3
Req
1
Req 
1 1 1 1
  
R1 R2 R3 RN
Series-parallel combination of resisters
Equivalent Resistance: Resistors in combination.
By combination we mean we have a mix of series and

Parallel. This is illustrated below.
R 1 R 3
R R 2 R 4 R 5
eq
Figure 5.4: Resistors In Series – Parallel Combination
To find the equivalent resistance we usually start at

the output of the circuit and work back to the input.
4
Basic Laws of Circuits
R 1 R 3
R4 R5
R R 2 R x Rx 
eq
R4  R5
R 1
R eq
R 2 R y R y  R x  R3
Figure 5.5: Resistance reduction.

5
R 1
R2 RY
R R Z RZ 
eq
R2  RY
R eq
Req  RZ  R1
6 Figure 5.6: Resistance reduction, final steps.

It is easier to work the previous problem using numbers than to

work out a general expression. This is illustrated below.
Example 5.1: Given the circuit below. Find Req.
10  8 
R eq
10  3  6 
Figure 5.7: Circuit for Example 5.1.
7
Example 5.1: Continued . We start at the right hand side

of the circuit and work to the left.
10  8  10 
R 10  2  R eq
5 
eq
Figure 5.8: Reduction steps for Example 5.1.
Ans: Req  15 
8
Example 5.2: Given the circuit shown below. Find Req.
6 
c 12  10 
b a
4 
R eq
d
Figure 5.9: Diagram for Example 5.2.
9
Example 5.2: Continued.

6 
c 12  10 
b a
4 
R eq
d
c 12 
b
Fig 5.10: Reduction 4  6  10 

R eq
steps.
10
d, a

c 12 
b
10  resistor
shorted out
4  6  10 
R eq
d, a
Req
4  6  12 
Fig 5.11: Reduction
steps.
11
Req 4  6  12 
Fig 5.12: Reduction

steps.
Req 4  4 
12
Series-Parallel Combinations of
Inductance
• Inductors in Series
– All have the same current
di di di
v L v L v L
dt dt
1 1 3 3
dt
2 2
v  v v v1 2 3
ECE 201 Circuit Theory I 72

To Determine the Equivalent Inductance
v v v v
1 2 3
di di di
v L L L
dt dt dt
1 2 3
di
v  (L  L  L )
dt
1 2 3
di
v L
dt
eq
L L L L
eq 1 2 3

The Equivalent Inductance

Inductors in Parallel
All Inductors have the same voltage across their

terminals.

1
 vd
t
i   i (t )
L
1 1 0
t0
1
1
 vd
t
i   i (t )
L
2 2 0
t0
2
1
 vd
t
i   i (t )
L
3 3 0
t0
3

i i i i 1 2 3
1 1 1
i       vd  i (t )  i (t )  i (t )
t
L L L 
1 0 2 0 3 0
t0
1 2 3
1
 vd  i (t )
t
i
L
0
t0
eq
1 1 1 1
  
L eq
L L L 1 2 3
i (t )  i (t )  i (t )  i (t )
0 1 0 2 0 3 0

Summary for Inductors in Parallel

Capacitors in Series

Capacitors in Parallel

Series and Parallel Capacitors
i  i1  i2  i3  ...  iN
dv dv dv dv
i  C1  C2  C3  ...  C N
dt dt dt dt
 N
 dv dv
   C K   Ceq
 k 1  dt dt
Ceq  C1  C2  C3  ....  C N
• The equivalent capacitance of N parallel-
connected capacitors is the sum of the
individual capacitance.
Capacitors
1 1 1 1 1
    ... 
Ceq C1 C2 C3 CN

Table 6.1

Types of sources
Independent sources :
1. Voltage source
2. Current source
Dependent sources:
3. Voltage dependent voltage source
4. Voltage dependent current source
5. current dependent voltage source
6. current dependent current source
Ideal voltage source or Independent voltage source:
•An ideal voltage source has zero internal resistance
so that change in load resistance will not change the
voltage supplied.
•An ideal voltage source gives a constant voltage,
whatever the current is.
•Example: A 10V battery, a 1ohm resistor or a 10ohm
resistor could be connected to it; the voltage across
both resistors would be 10V but the currents would be
different.
Independent Voltage source
• Its terminal voltage is completely independent

by current flowing through it.
• Symbol v-i characteristics
V
Vs
+ Vs
Vs -
I
Practical voltage source:
Practical voltage source has an internal

resistance (greater than zero), but an
internal resistance is being connected in
series with an ideal voltage source.
An ideal voltage source has zero internal

resistance
Above figure is practical voltage source.
As the load current IL is increased, The
terminal voltages is reduced from VS by
IL * RS. V L = VS – I L * R S
Ideal current source:
An ideal current source is a circuit

element that maintains a prescribed
current through its terminals
regardless of the voltage across those
terminals.
A ideal current source gives a constant

current whatever the load is.
If you have a 2A current source for example:
-with a 3 ohm resistor it would automatically change
the voltage to 6V.
With a 30 ohm resistor it would automatically
change the voltage to 60V but the current would be
2A whichever resistor was connected.
Practical current source:
Practical current source has an internal

resistance, but we treat this internal resistance
as being connected in parallel with an ideal
current source.
(An ideal current source has infinite internal
resistance.)
Practical current source:
As load voltage increases, the load current IL
decreases since some current Ish is bypassing
through the internal resistance path.
IL = IS -ISH
Dependent/controlled sources
• These are essentially four types of controlled
sources depending upon whether it is a current
source or voltage source and whether it is
controlled by current or voltage in some other
element of the same network.
• Voltage controlled voltage source
• Current controlled voltage source
• Voltage controlled current source
• Current controlled current source
S.No. Type of controlled symbol Units
source
1. Voltage controlled k dimensionless scaling
voltage source kvx + constant (no units)
- Vx  controlled voltage
2. Current controlled r scaling factor, units Ω ,VA-1
voltage source Ix  controlling current
rIx + r=voltage/current
-
3. Voltage controlled
current source
g scaling factor, units AV-1
gVx Ix  controlling current
4. Current Controlled k dimensionless scaling

Current source constant (no units)
ix  controlling current
kix
Dependent sources :
Dependent sources behave just like independent
voltage and current sources, except their values are
dependent in some way on another voltage or current
within the same circuit.
Voltage Controlled Current controlled
Voltage Source (VCVS) Current source(CCCS)
Types of dependent sources
Source transformation
It is the process of replacing a voltage source vS
in series with a resistor R by a current source iS
in parallel with the same resistor R, or vice versa
R a
a
+ is R
vs 
b b
Where The Source voltage: VS = IS * R
and the Current Source : IS = VS / R between
the terminals a and b in both the circuits.
By doing this transformation, the remaining

network must have the same terminal
charateristics in both the circuits
Source Transformations
R
a a
vs +
-
is R
b b
The double arrow indicate that the

transformation is bilateral , that we can start
with either configuration and drive the other
Source Transformation
• It is a simplification technique and is applied for only
practical sources. It is impossible to convert an ideal
voltage source into its equivalent current source and
vice versa.
• Hence source transformation is not applicable for
ideal sources.
• Short Circuit: It is defined as a wire of zero resistance
i.e. R=0 and V=0. Current can be any value
• Open Circuit: It is a resistor with R is infinity and
current is zero. Voltage can be any value.
NOTE:
• Two ideal current sources are connected in
series only when their magnitude are equal
otherwise the violation of KCL which leads to
instability in a system.
• Similarly two ideal voltage sources are
connected in parallel only when their
magnitudes are equal, otherwise the violation
of KVL which leads to instability in a system.
• Source transformation is applicable for
dependent sources also.
R a
a
is R RL
vs +
-
iL RL iL
vs R
iL  iL  is
R  RL R  RL
Equating we have ,
vs R vs

R  RL R  RL
is  is  OR v s  Ri s
R
Network Diffinitions
1. Elements
2. Node or Junction
3. Loop or mesh
4. Network and circuit
5. Active network/ passive network
6. Linear network/ Non-linear network
7. Unilateral network/ Bilateral network
8. Lumped network/ distributed network
Elements
• Active elements: 1. Independent sources
a) theoritical/ Ideal
b) practical
2. Dependent Sources
• Passive elements: R L and C
• Unilateral elements: diodes, transisters,
thyristors, etc…
Elements
Passive elements:
1. Those elements which are capable of only receiving
power. Examples:Resistors, inductors and capacitors
2. These elements cannot deliver power .
3. However there are some passive elements which can
store some finite energy and return this energy to
external elements.
4. Since these elements cannot deliver unlimited energy
over an infinite time interval they are treated as
passive elements only.
Node
A point at which two or more elements have a
common connection is called a node.
a) Simple node
b) Principal node
c) Super node
a) Simple node:
A point at which two or more elements have a
common connection.
node
b)Principle node:
It is the interconnection of at least three
elements.
c) Super node:
If a voltage source is placed between two
principal nodes then the whole combination is
treated as super node
Loop or mesh
• If no node was encountered more than once then the
set of nodes and elements that we have passed
through is defined as a closed path or loop.
• If the node at which we started is same as the node on
which we ended, then the path is a closed path or
loop.
• Mesh:
Mesh is a loop which does not contain any other loops
within it. All loops are not meshes but all meshes are
loops.
Network
• Network: Interconnection of two or more
simple circuit elements.
• If the network contains at least one closed
path, which is also an electrical circuit.
Note:
• Every circuit is a network but all networks are
not circuits.
Classification of Networks
1. Active network/Passive network
2. Linear network/Non-linear network
3. Lumped network/Distributed network
4. Unilateral/Bilateral network
Active network/Passive network: If the network
consists at least one independent source
otherwise treated as passive network.
Linear network
• A network is said to be linear if it obeys principle of
superposition and homogenity.
Principle of superposition:
Consider a mathematical system H, which is described by y=2x
• Combination of inputs gives outputs same combination.
y=2x x2 y2=2x2
x x1 y1=2x1
H H H
X1+X2 2(x1+x2)
H
Homogeneity
• In a linear network N if the excitation is
multiplied by a constant k, then responses in all
branches of network are also multiplied with
same constant k.
4A 12A
+
+
N 2A 30V -
N 6A
10V -
Lumped network
• It is defined as a network in which all elements
are placed at one place
• Physically they can be touchable and they can
be separable.
• Ex: R, L, C network
Distributed Network
• It is defined as a network in which all elements
are distributed throughout the length of
transmission line and they cannot be
separable and physically touchable.
Ex: Transmission lines and integrated
circuits(IC’s)
Unilateral and Bilateral Elements
• A circuit whose operation is dependent from
the direction of current through the element.
Ex: circuit consisting of diodes
• Bilateral elements: A circuit whose
characteristics, behavior is same irrespective
of the direction of current is bilateral element
Ex: circuit consisting of resistors
Kirchhoff's Current Law
• Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL):
In an electric circuit , the algebraic i1 i2
sum of all the currents at any node i3
i5
or junction must be equal to zero. i4
i3+i4+i5-i1-i2 =0 (1)
n
i3+i4+i5 =i1 + i2
Or  i (t )  0
j 1
j
At a node,
Sum of entering currents= Sum of leaving currents
Kirchhoff's Current Law
Also
dq3/dt+ dq4 /dt+dq5 /dt=dq1 /dt+ dq2 /dt
Or q3+q4+q5 =q1 +q2
Sum of entering charges=Sum of leaving charges
Since q=ne
n3 e+n4 e+n5 e =n1 e +n2 e

n3 + n4 + n5 =n1 +n2
Sum of entering electrons= sum of leaving electrons
• Analogy: mass flow at a pipe junction

Features of KCL
• KCL applies to any lumped electric circuit, doesn’t
matter whether the circuit elements are linear or
non-linear, active/passive, time varying/invariant
etc. KCL is independent of circuit elements.
• Since entering charges are equal to leaving
charges, there is no accumulation of charge at a
node.
• KCL comprises of law of conservation of charge
at every node.
Kirchhoff's Volatge Law
• KVL
– The algebraic sum of voltages around n
any closed path or loop in a circuit is
zero.
 v (t )  0
j 1
j
– Voltages means emf’s and resistive

drops.
- + v2(t) -
+
v1(t) v3(t)
+ -
V1+V2+V3=0
Sign convention for applying KVL
• In KVL: for a specified path,
– A voltage encountered + to - is positive.
– A voltage encountered - to + is negative.
• Arrows are sometimes used to represent
voltage differences; they point from lower
potential to higher potential.
+
v(t) ≡ v(t)
-
Sign convention for applying KVL
• After identifying a mesh or closed path in a
network, assume a direction of mesh current.
• For all passive elements, where current flows
in the direction of path, that voltage drop is
treated as positive and vice versa.
• For all active elements, if the path enters from
positive to negative of the Emf, the voltage
should be taken as positive and vice versa.
KVL Features :
• KVL is also independent of nature of the

elements.
• KVL expresses law of conservation of energy
in every loop.
• Energy given by sources = energy absorbed by
elements in a closed path or loop.
KCL and KVL
• Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) and Kirchhoff’s
Voltage Law (KVL) are the fundamental laws of
circuit analysis.
• KCL is the basis of nodal analysis – in which
the unknowns are the voltages at each of the
nodes of the circuit.
• KVL is the basis of mesh analysis – in which
the unknowns are the currents flowing in each
of the meshes of the circuit.
Open Circuit
• What if R =  ?
i(t)=0
The Rest +
of the
Circuit v(t)
• R= –
• i(t) = v(t)/R = 0 i(t)=0
• V(t) may be any value based on the rest of the

circuit.
Lect1 EEE 202 125
Short Circuit
• What if R = 0 ?
i(t)
The Rest +
of the
Circuit v(t)=0
• R = 0, –
• v(t) = R i(t) = 0
• i(t) may be any value based on the rest of the
circuit.
Lect1 EEE 202 126

Star-Delta Transformation
• Whenever we are unable to find given two resistors
neither in series nor in parallel we go for star-delta
transformation.
• If three resistors forms a junction then those thee are
said to be in star or T.
• If three resistors form a loop then those three elements
are said to be in delta.
• Hence two transformations exists:
1. Delta-Star
2. Star-Delta
1. Y  transformation
2. (delta star )
Let star a-b-c is the actual part of a network with
values R1,R2 and R3, it can be suitably transformed
into delta with corresponding values Ra,Rb and Rc as
shown above, (vice versa) the remainig network cannot
be disturbed
Delta to star transfomation formulas
R b R c
R 1 
( R a  R b  R c )
R c R a
R 2 
( R a  R b  R c )
R a R b
R 3 
( R a  R b  R c )
Star to delta transformation formulas
R1 R2  R2 R3  R3 R1
Ra 
R1
R1 R2  R2 R3  R3 R1
Rb 
R2
R1 R2  R2 R3  R3 R1
Rc 
R3
Δ – Y Conversion

• First take delta connection: between A and C,
there are two parallel paths, one having a
resistance of R2 and other having a resistance
of ( R1+R3)
Hence resistance between terminal A and C is
= R2.(R1+R3)/[R2+( R1+R3)]
• Now take the star connection
The resistance between the same terminal A and C

is (RA+RC)
Since terminal resistance have to be same so we
must have
(RA+RC) = R2.(R1+R3)/[R2+( R1+R3)] (1)
DELTA to STAR
• Similarly for terminals A and B, B and C, we

can have the following expression
(RA+RB) = R3.(R1+R2)/[R3+( R1+R2)] (2)
(RB+RC) = R1.(R2+R3)/[R1+( R2+R3)] (3)
Now adding 1,2 and 3 and subtract 3 we will get
the following values for RA.
, Similarily R2 and R3.
DELTA to STAR
R R
R = b c
1 R +R +R
a b c
R R
R = c a
2 R +R +R
a b c
R R
a b
R =
3 R +R +R
a b c
How to remember?
Resistance of each arm of star is given by the
product of the resistance of the two delta
sides that meet at its ends divided by the sum
of the three delta resistance
Y – Δ Conversion
Multiplying equations 1 and 2, 2 and 3 , 3

and 1 and adding them together and
simplifying, we will have the following
result. ECE 201 Circuit Theory I 140
Y – Δ Conversion (continued)
• After some algebraic manipulation left side
formulas, right side formulas can be obtained.
R R +R R +R R
R R
R = b c R = 1 2 2 3 3 1
a R
1 R +R +R 1
a b c
R R R R +R R +R R
R = c a R = 1 2 2 3 3 1
2 R +R +R b R
a b c 2
R R R R +R R +R R
a b
R = R = 1 2 2 3 3 1
3 R +R +R c R
a b c 3
Multiplying 1 and 2, 2 and 3 , 3 and 1 and adding
them together and simplifying, we will have the
following result. ECE 201 Circuit Theory I 141
Problem
• A delta-section of resistors is given in
figure. Convert this into an equivalent
star-section.
Ans. : RA  3 ; RB  1.0 ; RC  1.5 .

Conversion from Star or Wye (Y) to Delta
(Δ)
After
solving
After solving
Problem
The figure shows a
network. The
number on each
branch represents
the value of
resistance in ohms.
Find the resistance
between the points
E and F.
Solution
Ans. : 5.6 Ω
Problem
• Find the current drawn from the 5 volt battery in
the network shown in figure.
Solution :
Ans. : 0.974 A
Note :
• During the network reduction or
simplification process, some points
in the original network are lost.
•Care must be taken during this
process that no point of ultimate
relevance is lost.
Basic Electric Circuits
Wye to Delta Transformation:
Example 5.3: Return to the circuit of Figure 5.13 and find Req.
I 9 
a
10  5 
R 10 
V
+
_
eq
c b
8  4 
Convert the delta around a – b – c to a wye.
20
Example 5.3: continued
9 
2 
R eq 4  2 
8  4 
Figure 5.15: Example 5.3 diagram.
It is easy to see that Req = 15 
21
Example 5.4: Using wye to delta. The circuit of 5.13
may be redrawn as shown in 5.16.
9 
a
10  5 
R eq 10 
c
8  4 
b
Figure 5.16: “Stretching” (rearranging) the circuit.
Convert the wye of a – b – c to a delta.
22
9  9 
a a
10  7 .3 3 
R 2 7 .5 
eq
c 11 
R eq
c 11 
22 
8 
5 .8 7 
b b
(a) (b)
Figure 5.17: Circuit reduction of Example 5.4.
23
9 
R eq
1 3 .2  11 
Figure 5.18: Reduction of Figure 5.17.
Req = 15 
This answer checks with the delta to wye solution earlier.
24

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Circuits &Networks-1

• Loop and Nodal methods of analysis of

• Duality & Dual networks.

• Basic terms, comparison of magnetic and

• R.M.S and Average values, Form factor for

• Locus diagrams of R L and C circuits

• Tellegens, Superposition, Reciprocity,

Georg Simon Ohm (1787-1854)

Copyright © 2013 The McGraw-Hill

FACTOR NAME SYMBOL

Example: 12.3 mW = 0.0123 W =1.23 x 10 -2 W

Copyright © 2013 The McGraw-Hill

Copyright © 2013 The McGraw-Hill

In this example, the

This is the graph for a

Copyright © 2013 The McGraw-Hill

Positive power means the device is absorbing energy.

Copyright © 2013 The McGraw-Hill

The resistance of a wire is determined by the resistivity

[In most cases, the resistance of wires can be assumed to be 0 ohms.]

• A resistor R has conductance G=1/R.

• The i-v equation (i.e. Ohm’s law) can be written as

Copyright © 2013 The McGraw-Hill

• A short circuit between A and B means v=0.

Copyright © 2013 The McGraw-Hill

The Canadian Standards Council issues labels

to identify the amount of voltage required to

 Never handle electrical devices if you are wet or near

The third prong of a 3 prong plug ( ) is a ground wire,

Fuses ( ) and circuit breakers ( ) interrupt a

Fuses contain a thin piece of metal designed to melt if the

Lect1 EEE 202 31

Lect1 EEE 202 33

Resistors are passive elements that

A voltage is developed across its

Units: Ohms (Ω)

Lect1 EEE 202 36

Ch06 Capacitors and Inductors 42

Ch06 Capacitors and Inductors 43

Ch06 Capacitors and Inductors 44

•behave like a tiny rechargeable battery.

Ch06 Capacitors and Inductors 50

spacing, the greater the

Ch06 Capacitors and Inductors 53

i(t) Voltage division:

Parallel Not Parallel

Lect1 EEE 202 59

i(t) Current division:

By combination we mean we have a mix of series and

Figure 5.4: Resistors In Series – Parallel Combination

To find the equivalent resistance we usually start at

Figure 5.5: Resistance reduction.

6 Figure 5.6: Resistance reduction, final steps.

It is easier to work the previous problem using numbers than to

Example 5.1: Given the circuit below. Find Req.

Figure 5.7: Circuit for Example 5.1.

Example 5.1: Continued . We start at the right hand side

Figure 5.8: Reduction steps for Example 5.1.