CHAPTER 2

CHEMISTRY
 A radical is an atom, ion, or molecule that has unpaired
electrons. 
 An element is a substance made up of the same type of
atoms. 
 A compound is a combination of two or more elements. 

 Based off these definitions, we know that radicals,

elements, and compounds biggest difference is there
size. We know this because an element is a combination
of atoms, and a compound is a combination of
elements. 
CHEMISTRY WATER ANALYSIS
 Water chemistry analyses are carried out to identify and
quantify the chemical components and properties of water
samples. The type and sensitivity of the analysis depends
on the purpose of the analysis and the anticipated use of
the water. Chemical water analysis is carried out on water
used in industrial processes, on waste-water stream, on
rivers and stream, on rainfall and on the sea. In all cases
the results of the analysis provides information that can
be used to make decisions or to provide re-assurance that
conditions are as expected. The analytical parameters
selected are chosen to be appropriate for the decision
making process or to establish acceptable normality.
 Water chemistry analysis is often the groundwork of
studies of water quality, pollution, hydrology and 
geothermal waters. Analytical methods routinely
used can detect and measure all the natural elements
and their inorganic compounds and a very wide
range of organic chemical species using methods
such as gas chromatography and mass spectrometry.
In water treatment plants producing drinking water
and in some industrial processes using products
with distinctive taste and odors, specialized 
organoleptic methods may be used to detect smells
at very low concentrations.
 HDROGEN ION CONCENTRATION
AND pH
 Hydrogen ion concentration is more
conveniently expressed as pH, which is the
logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion
concentration in gram moles per liter.

 The pH of a solution is a measure of hydrogen

ion concentration, which in turn is a measure
of its acidity.
 The pH scale is a measure of how acidic or
basic a substance is. It measures the hydrogen
ions in a solution or substance.

 Therefore, a difference of one pH unit is a

tenfold difference in hydrogen ion
concentration. A Hydrogen ion
concentration of 4 is 1000 times more acidic
than a hydrogen ion concentration of 7.
 CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIA
 Chemical equilibrium is the state of a
reversible reaction where the rate of the
forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse
reaction. While a reaction is in equilibrium the
concentration of the reactants and products are
constant.
 HOMOGENEOUS EQUILIBRIA
 A homogeneous equilibrium is one in which
all of the reactants and products are present in
a single solution (by definition,
a homogeneous mixture ). Reactions between
solutes in liquid solutions belong to one type
of homogeneous equilibria. The chemical
species involved can be molecules, ions, or a
mixture of both.
 HETEROGENEOUS
EQUILIBRIA
 A heterogeneous equilibrium is a system in
which reactants and products are found in two
or more phases. The phases may be any
combination of solid, liquid, or gas phases, and
solutions. When dealing with these equilibria,
remember that solids and pure liquids do not
appear in equilibrium constant expressions.
 Precipitation Reaction
 A precipitation reaction refers to the formation
of an insoluble salt when two solutions
containing soluble salts are combined. The
insoluble salt that falls out of solution is known
as the precipitate, hence
the reaction's name. Precipitation
reactions can help determine the presence of
various ions in solution
Oxidation and Reduction Reactions
 An oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction is a
type of chemical reaction that involves a
transfer of electrons between two species.
An oxidation-reduction reaction is any
chemical reaction in which
the oxidation number of a molecule, atom, or
ion changes by gaining or losing an electron
Acid Base Reaction (Neutralization)
 A neutralization reaction is when an acid and
a base react to form water and a salt and
involves the combination of H+ ions and
OH- ions to generate water.
The neutralization of a strong acid and
strong base has a pH equal to 7.
 Gas-Producing Reactions
 A gas evolution reaction is a chemical process
that produces a gas, such as oxygen or carbon
dioxide. In the following examples, an acid
reacts with a carbonate, producing salt, carbon
dioxide, and water, respectively.
 Chemical Kinetics
 Chemical kinetics, also known as
reaction kinetics, is the branch of
physical chemistry that is concerned with
understanding the rates of chemical reactions.
It is to be contrasted with thermodynamics,
which deals with the direction in which a
process occurs but in itself tells nothing about
its rate.
Affect of Temperature on Reaction Rates
 Increasing the temperature increases reaction
rates because of the disproportionately large
increase in the number of high energy
collisions. It is only these collisions (possessing
at least the activation energy for the reaction)
which result in a reaction.
 Particles can only react when they collide. If
you heat a substance, the particles move faster
and so collide more frequently. That will speed
up the rate of reaction.
 Gas Solubility
 Gases as might be expected, increase in
solubility with an increase in pressure. Henry's
Law states that: The solubility of a gas in a
liquid is directly proportional to
the pressure of that gas above the surface of
the solution.
 ALKALINITY
 Alkalinity (from Arabic "al-qalī") is the
capacity of water to resist changes in pH that
would make the water more acidic. (It should
not be confused with basicity which is an
absolute measurement on the pH
scale.) Alkalinity is the strength of a buffer
solution composed of weak acids and their
conjugate bases.
Colloids
 a homogeneous noncrystalline substance consisting

of large molecules or ultramicroscopic particles of

one substance dispersed through a second
substance. Colloids include gels, sols, and
emulsions; the particles do not settle, and cannot be
separated out by ordinary filtering or centrifuging
like those in a suspension.
Coagulation
 the action or process of a liquid, especially blood,

changing to a solid or semi-solid state.

 Organic Compounds
 Organic compound, any of a large class of
chemical compounds in which one or more
atoms of carbon are covalently linked to atoms
of other elements, most commonly hydrogen,
oxygen, or nitrogen. The few carbon-
containing compounds not classified
as organic include carbides, carbonates, and
cyanides.
 Hydrocarbons
 A hydrocarbon is an organic compound made
of nothing more than carbons and hydrogen.
 Saturated hydrocarbons have as many
hydrogen atoms as possible attached to every
carbon.
 Unsaturated hydrocarbons have double
and/or triple bonds between some of the
carbon atoms.
 Alcohols
 Alcohols are the family of compounds that contain
one or more hydroxyl (-OH) groups attached to a
single bonded alkane. Alcohols are represented by
the general formula -OH. Alcohols are important in
organic chemistry because they can be converted to
and from many other types of compounds.
Alcohols are the family of compounds that contain
one or more hydroxyl (-OH) groups attached to a
single bonded alkane. Alcohols are represented by
the general formula -OH. Alcohols are important in
organic chemistry because they can be converted to
and from many other types of compounds.
 Thanks!