STANDARDS

Contents:

Primary standards of length

International prototype meter and
Imperial yard

Materials used for length standards

Light wave length standard

Meter as of today

Airy points and Bessel points

Characteristics of line standards and end standards

Conversion from line std to end std

Calibration of end std
 Primary standards of length

1. International prototype meter(1889-1960)

2. Imperial standard Yard

Material: Platinum-Iridium alloy(90%-10%), temp 0°C

International prototype meter

 1 Yard=0.91439841 metre ( in year 1922)

Imperial Yard
Materials used for Length standards
To prepare working standards a material should have the
following properties:
1. High surface polish and be free of tarnishing
2. Have a suitable coefficient of expansion
3. Remain stable in size over a long period of time

Material Aprox. Expansion per °C

unitsx10-6
Pure Nickel 12.8
Invar alloy(58%Ni, 42%Fe) 11.2 at 20°C
Aluminum 22-24
Brass 18-20
Bronze 16-18
Steel 11-12
Fused silica 0.55
Elinvar(Ni and Cr)
Disadvantages of material length standards

They vary in length over the years owing to

molecular changes in the alloy.

Exact replica of material length standards were not

available somewhere else.

If these standards are accidentally damaged then

exact copies could not be made.

Conversion factors required for change over to metric

system.

How about wavelength of selected radiation of light as primary std of

length?
 Light wave(Optical) Length Standard

#Calculate the following quantities : a) Wavelengths of the orange radiations of Krypton-86

in an inch and b) in Yard.
Calculate the wavelengths for Yard and other units

1000mm=x wavelengths
1 inch = (x/1000) x25.4 Wavelengths
1 yard=(x/1000)x25.4x36 wavelengths=1509458.3 wavelengths

Advantages:

It does not change in length.

If destroyed it can be easily replaced.

Identical copies can be kept in all standard rooms and physical laboratories.

By comparison much higher accuracy in measurements can be obtained.

It will be unit of length which could be produced consistently

at any time in all countries.
 NOW, what is definition of a meter ?

Length of path travelled by light in vacuum in 1/299792458 second. Light

source=iodine stabilized He-Ne laser.(1983)
AIRY POINTS AND BESSEL POINTS
Airy points and Bessel points are commonly used
in precision engineering to support bodies. These
two points define the location where a support
has to be placed to minimize distortion.
Steps to solve the problem:

1. Solve for reaction forces at the supports.

2. Apply Euler-Bernouli beam equation at the extreme left section and applying boundary
condition

3. Take section in the middle again apply BC

4. Solve for constants and get the values for constant of integrations

5. Obtain the location of support in terms of the overhanging length

Comparison of end gauge with a line standard by the displacement method
 Distinction between Airy and minimum deflection support points

Airy points(End faces parallel) Bessel points minimum deflection points

For airy points, a deliberate amount of sag For points of minimum deflection the ends
is permitted that is just sufficient to pull are allowed to sag slightly to lift the centre
the ends of the bar up square with and keep deviation from true plane to
measuring plane. minimum.

If bar is supported at Airy points there is no If the bar is supported at Bessel points, the
deflection at the ends. ends of the bar deflected downwards.
Distance between supports is 0.557L. Distance between supports is 0.554L.
Sagging at the center is more. Sagging at the center is less.
Airy points are indicated on length bars Bessel points indicated on straight edges and
above 150mm length. reference planes etc.
Characteristics of line standards

1. Scales can be accurately engraved but it is difficult to take full advantage of

this accuracy. Ex. steel rule can only read ±0.2mm of true value.

2. A scale is quick and easy to use over a wide range.

3. Scale markings are not subjected to wear.

4. Scale does not possess built in datum.

5. Scales are subjected parallax effect, a source

of both positive and negative reading errors.

6. Scales are not convenient for close

tolerance length measurement except in
conjunction with microscope.
 Characteristics of end standards

1. End standards are highly accurate and are well suited to measurements of close tolerance.

2. They are time consuming in use and prove only one dimension at a time.

3. Dimensional tolerances as small as

0.0005mm can be obtained.
4. Subjected to wear on their measuring faces

5. Groups of blocks are wrung together to

provide a given size, faulty wringing leads to
damage.
6. End standards have built-in datum because
their measuring faces are flat and parallel and
can be positively located on datum surface.
# build dimension using m112 set: 43.716mm

# build 37.975mm
Transfer from line standard to end standard
L1=A+b+c
L2=A+b+d

L3=A+a+c

L4=A+a+d

Adding all the four measurements

4A+2a+2b+2c+2d=4A+2(a+b)+2(c+d)

Now (a+b)≠(c+d)

Let us assume (a+b)<(c+d) by amount x

4A+2(a+b)+2(c+d)=4A+2(a+b)+2[(a+b)+x]

=4A+4(a+b)+2x Dividing by 4 gives

A+(a+b)+1/2x
interpretation
# A meter and a standard is to be obtained from a calibrated line standard by using a
composite line standard. The calibrated line standard has an actual length of
1000.001mm.
The composite line standard consists of a length bar having a basic length of 950mm two
end blocks, (a+b) and(c+d), each having a basic length of 50mm. Each end block has a
central engraved line.
Four comparisons were made between calibrated end bar and composite bar using all
combinations of the end blocks. The four measurements were obtained were as follows:
L1=1000.0025mm,
L2=1000.0035mm,
L3=1000.0015mm,
L4=1000.0025mm.
The two end blocks were compared with each other and block (a+b) was found to be
0.001mm shorter than block (c+d).
Example 1
Calibration of end bars

LA-length of one of the 500mm bar

LB-Length of other 500mm bar.

x1- the difference between the calibrated

metre bar and the combined lengths of A
and B.

x2 –the difference in the length

between A and B.

L-actual length of metre bar

L±x1=LA+LB

LA±x2=LB LA=(L±x1±x2)/2

LB=LA±x2
Ex: A calibrated metre end bar has an actual length of 1000.0003mm. It is to be used in
the calibration of two bars A and B, each having a basic length of 500mm.
When compared with metre bar LA+LB was found to be shorter by 0.0002mm. In
comparing A with B it was found that A was 0.0004mm longer than B. Find the actual
lengths of A and B.

Ans: LA=500.00025mm
LB=499.99985mm
Another example

# Four length bars A, B, C and D each having a basic length 125mm, are to be calibrated
using a calibrated length bar of 500mm basic length. The 500mm bar has an actual length of
499.9991mm. Also it was found that
LB=LA+0.0001mm
LC=LA+0.0005mm
LD=LA-0.0002mm and LA+LB+LC+LD=L+0.0003mm. Determine LA, LB,LC and LD.

Ans: LA=124.99975mm
LB=124.99985mm,
LC=125.00025mm,
LD=124.99955mm