Water Body Hygiene

Occupational and Environmental

Hygiene Department
Xia yin yin
 Water
The amount of water in the world is fixed ,
about 1.358×10×21 L in all. →

How many percent of the water is fresh

water( 淡水 )?
 sea water 97.3 %
glacier 75%
fresh water 2.7 % river, ground water 25 %

But glacier and deep ground water is

unavailable fresh water , readily available fresh
water is limited.
How many percent of the water is fresh water
readily available for use ?
 Only about 0.2 % of the water is fresh
water readily available for use .
Water resources were sufficient for all
purpose in early settlements.
The current water crisis has risen from
population growth and urbanization.
There were still instances where
communities disappeared because of
declining water supplies.
The one possible reason of kroraina( 楼兰 )
disappeared is declining water supplies.
1.Water is an important environment factor
for survivial :The average daily per capita
consumption of drinking water is usually
found to be around 2 litres,
for socio-economic development
for health
 Water is an important constituent of living
matter, constituting about 70% of the human
body. The water intake of an adult varies from
1.136 to 3.408 liter per day.
In a typical American community , the
average per capita consumption is between 189
liter and 378 liter per day. In summer ,the demand
may increase by 50 %. In Asia and Africa, per
capita consumption may be only liter per day .
In Chongqing , the average per capita
consumption is about 100 liter per day.(P392)
 Table 1 .Comparison of average daily, personal water use in USA
Activity Frequency Circumstances Water Used Total(/d)
Toilet 4 flushes/d Ultra-low flush toilet 6 L/flush 23 L
Conventional toilet 13-26L/flush 53-106 L
Shower Once/d for 5 Low-flow showerhead 9 L/min 45L
min Conventional head 11-30L/min 57-151 L
Bath Once/d Tub 1/4 to 1/3 full 34-45L 34-45L
Full tub 136L 136L
Shaving Once/d 1 full basin 4L 4L
Open tap 19-38 L 19-38 L
Brushing teeth Twice/d Brush and rinse 1-2 L 2-4 L
Open tap 8-19L 16-38 L
Cooking Washing 1 full basin 4-8 L 4-8 L
produce Open tap 19-38L 19-38L
Automatic Once/d full load Short cycle 30-49L 30-49L
dishwasher Standard cycle 38-57L 38-57L
Manual Once/d Full basin/wash and rinse 19 L 19 L
dishwashing Open tap 114 L 114 L
Laundry 1
/3 load/d Portion of full load 132-189L/Full 38-57L
load
Lawn and trees Water requirements vary with plant species, type of turf, season and region.
Car washing Twice/mo 5 full, 7.5 –L buckets 76 L/mo 1L
Hose with shut-off nozzle 376 L/mo 2L
Charpter 1

The main sources of fresh water supply

──rain
──surface water
──ground water→
How to define the quality of the fresh water ?
▽
3
4 10
Chapter 2
Water quality-criteria and standards
The guidelines for water quality
1) Physical aspects
2) Chemical aspects
3) Microbiological aspects
1) Physical parameters
(1) Temperature:0.1 ℃ ~30℃
(2) Colour : Colour may be due to the
presence of coloured organic matter such
as algae( 藻类) , metal such as iron and
manganese （锰） or highly coloured
industrial wastes.
(3) Taste and odour: Taste and odour
originate from natural and biological
sources or processes, from contamination
by chemical 。→
4)Turbidity: Turbidity in fresh water is caused
by algae, detritus (dead organic material),
and silt (inorganic, or mineral, suspended
sediment).

Nephelometric turbidity units (NTU’s): ----1

mg diatomite in 1L water contributing the
turbidity is called 1 nephelometric turbidity
units.
2) Chemical aspects
(1)pH : 7.2-8.5
(2)Total solid: under certain temperature, a sample of
water is vaporized slow and is left the total amount
of solid (dissolved solid and suspended solid)
(3) Hardness: hardness in water is caused mainly by
four dissolved compounds.

---Calcium bicarbonate Ca(HCO3)2

---Magnesium bicarbonate Mg(HCO3 ) 2
---Calcium sulphate （ CaSO4 ）
---Magnesium sulphate （ MgSO4 ） .
 The ions of hardness water react with soap to
form a precipitate or soap scum.
Chlorides and nitrates of calcium and magnesium
can cause hardness, and iron 、 manganese
and aluminium compounds also cause hardness,
but they occur generally in small amounts.
Hardness is classified as carbonate( 碳酸盐 )
and non-carbonate .
----- “temporary” hardness: the carbonate
hardness is due to the presence of calcium and
magnesium bicarbonates.
-----“permanent ” hardness: the non-carbonate
hardness is due to the calcium and magnesium
sulphates （硫酸盐） , chlorides （氯化物）
and nitrates （硝酸盐） .
Hardness in water is expressed by CaCO3 (mg/L).
The terms soft water are used when the levels of
hardness is less than 75 CaCO3 mg/L .
The terms hard water are used when the levels of
hardness is 150-300 CaCO3 mg/L.
(4)Nitrogenous complex: inorganic nitrogen may
exist in the free state as a gas N 2, or as nitrate
NO 3-, nitrite NO 2- or ammonia NH3. Organic
nitrogen is found in proteins. →
(5)Dissolved oxygen (DO): the amount of gaseous
oxygen (O2) dissolved in an water . As dissolved
oxygen levels in water drop below 5.0 mg/L,
aquatic life is put under stress.
(6)Chemical oxygen demand (COD): the amount
of oxygen consumed to completely chemically
oxidize the organic water constituents to
inorganic end products. →
(7) Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD): the
amount of oxygen required by aerobic
microorganisms to decompose the organic
matter in water .
It is used as a measure of the degree of water
pollution.
BOD520: one liter sample water is kept at 20 ℃
in the dark and tested for dissolved oxygen
(DO) after five days. Then BOD of the control
is taked from the test result (DO) to provide the
corrected value-- BOD520.
(8) Chlorides:
(9) Sulphates:
(10) Total organic carbon (TOC) and total oxygen
demand (TOD ) :
TOC :the amount of carbon covalently bonded
in organic molecules. It is a direct indication of
the pollution levels by organic compounds in
water.
 Total oxygen demand (TOD): a quantitative
measure of all oxidizable material (organic
material and inorganic material) in a sample
water .TOD measurements are becoming
more popular because of their quickness.
Analysis time is approximately 5 minutes.
(11) Poisonous substance: Hg 、 As 、 Pb
and PCBs( 多氯联苯 )
3) Microbiological aspects
(1) Bacteria count: the bacteria count of
1ml sample water incubated in media plate
at 37 ℃ in 24 h. The more bacteria count ,
the worse pollution.
(2) Coliform bacteria: include all aerobic
and facultative anaerobic （兼性厌氧） ,
gram-negative( 革兰氏阴性 ), non-sporing
（无芽孢） , motile and non-motile rods
capable of fermenting lactose at 37 ℃ in 24
h. The coliform group includes both faecal
( 粪 ) and non-faecal organisms.
There are several reasons why coliform organisms are
chosen as indicators of faecal pollution rather than the
water –borne pathogens directly:
a. the coliform organisms are constantly present in
great abundance in the human intestine.It is estimated
that an average person excretes 200-400 billion of
these organisms per day. Their presence in water is
looked upon as evidence of faecal contamination .
b. they are easily detected by culture methods- as
small as one bacteria in 100 ml of water, whereas the
methods for detecting the pathogenic organisms are
complicated and time-consuming .
 c. They survive longer than the pathogens,
generally which tend to die out more
rapidly than coliform bacilli.
d. The coliflorm bacilli have greater
resistance to the forces of natural
purification than the water borne pathogens.
If the coliform organisms are present in a
water sample ,the assumption is the
probable presence of intestinal pathogens.
Drinking water quality standard:
1) Physical and chemical indicators;
2) Toxicological indicators;
3) Bacteriological indicators;
4) Radiological indicators;
1) Physical and chemical indicators:
turbidity: the guideline value ≤1 NTU’s
hardness: the guideline value ≤
450 CaCO3 mg/L
3) Bacteriological indicators:
(1)Bacteria count: the guideline value ≤100
CFU/ml (colony forming units
per milliliter)
(2) Coliform organisms: the guideline value
0 /100ml
（ 3 ） Faecal coliform: is an indicator of
faecal pollution .They are the bacteria found
in the gut( 肠 ) of warm blooded animals
and their presence in water indicates the
water is contaminated with faecal matter.
（ 4 ） Free chlorine residual : disinfection
with 0.3 mg/L of free chlorine residual after
contact period of at least 30 minutes.
In China ,the free chlorine residual of 0.05
mg /L is maintained in distribution system.
The U.S Public Health Service Drinking
Water Standards were first adopted in 1914
to protect the health of the public in USA.
(P152)
 National interim primary drinking water regulation in USA
(Maximum contaminant levels)
Contaminant MCL

Inorganic chemicals
Arsenic 0.05(mg/L)
Barium 1
Cadmium 0.010
Chromium 0.05
Fluoride 1.4-2.4
Lead 0.05
Mercury 0.002
Nitrate (as N) 10
Selenium 0.01
Silver 0.05
Organic chemicals
Chlorinated hydrocarbons
（氯代烃类）
Endrin 0.0002
Lindane 0.004
Methoxychlor 0.1
Toxaphene 0.0005
Chlorophenoxys
2,4-D 0.1
2,4,5-T, Silvex 0.01
Trihalomethanes( 三卤甲烷 ) 0.100
Turbidity 1 unit
Microbiologic contaminants 1 coliform bacterium /100 ml as
the arithmetical mean of all
samples /month
Radioactivity

Combined radium 226 and 5 pCi/L

radium 228 （镭）
Gross α particle activity 15 pCi/L
(including radium 226 but
excluding radon and uranium)
Average annual concentration of not to produce annual dose
β particle and photon equivalent greater than 4 mrem
radioactivity not to produce per year
annual dose
Tritium （氚） 20,000 pCi/L

Strontium 90 （锶 90 ） 8 pCi/L
 Interim national secondary drinking water regulations
(Secondary maximum contaminant levels)
Contaminant SMCL
Chloride 250 mg/L
Color 15 color units
Copper 1 mg/L
Corrosivity Noncorrosive
Foaming agents 0.5 mg/L
Hydrogen sulfide 0.5 mg/L
Iron 0.3 mg/L
Manganese 0.05 mg/L
Odor 3 threshold odor number
pH 6.5-8.5
Sulfate 250 mg/L
TDS 500 mg/L
Zinc 5 mg/L
Dual water supply : in Calcutta, India. There
is dual water supply system. One set of
pipes supplying filtered water for personal
use, and another set of pipes supplying
unfiltered water for flushing toilets.
The drawback of the dual system is that
people may mistake one for the other
through ignorance.
Chapter 3
Water body pollution
1 )The main resource of water pollution
⑴industrial waste water
⑵domestic sewage
eg: hospital sewage
(need special treatment)
⑶agricultural sewage (pesticide)
(4)other
 重庆长江
大桥南桥头的滨江路上
，重庆市政府 1998 年 6
月立下的“饮用水源一
级保护区”的石碑引人
注目。然而那些未经任
何处理的有毒有害的含
油废水废渣，却堂而皇
之地每天从护岸大堤的
排水口源源不断涌出，
直接流入长江。近两年
来，在饮用水源保护区
内，已先后有 70 多家
餐饮企业在此安营扎寨
，且生意红火。重庆市
的环保志愿者呼吁，政
府有关部门应立即禁止
南滨路的餐饮业对长江
水质的严重污染。
(2003)
 广州军区广州总医院废水处理工程　
　处理规模 1400m3/d, 总投资 200 万元
What is this?
What happen to the water?
 Eutrophication( 水体富营养化 ): is a process
whereby water bodies, such as lakes, estuaries, or
slow-moving streams receive excess nutrients that
stimulate excessive plant growth (algae,
periphyton attached algae, and nuisance plants
weeds). This enhanced plant growth, often called
an algal bloom, reduces dissolved oxygen in the
water when dead plant material decomposes and
can cause other organisms to die. Water with a low
concentration of dissolved oxygen is called
hypoxic .
Types of water pollutant
1) physical pollutants
2) chemical pollutants
3) ecological pollutants: red tide and toxic
algae (blue green algae)
1) Physical pollutants
Thermal pollution is a temperature change in
natural bodies of water caused by human
influence. The temperature change can be upwards
or downwards. In the Northern Hemisphere, a
common cause of thermal pollution is the use of
water as a coolant, especially in power plants.
Water used as a coolant is returned to the natural
environment at a higher temperature. Increase in
water temperature can impact on aquatic
organisms by (a) decreasing oxygen supply, (b)
killing fish juveniles which are vulnerable to small
fluctuations in temperature, and (c) affecting
ecosystem composition.
2) chemical pollutants
(1)Mercury( 汞 ) ： the chemical form-elemental mercury
、 inorganic mercury and organic mercury.
① methylmercury is organic mercury , it can accumulate
in organisms by bioaccumulation and biomagnification.
②impacts on human health: methylmercury and
elemental mercury are poisonous to the nervous
system. There is some evidence at present that
methylmercury can cause cancer in humans. Moreover,
exposure during pregnancy is of most concern, because
it may harm the development of the unborn baby’s
brain. This compound readily passes both the placental
barrier and the blood-brain.
Minamata disease (Japan) is chronic methylmercury
poison.
3) ecological pollutants:
太湖无锡蓝藻爆发
 Eutrophication is frequently a result of nutrient
pollution
such as the release of sewage effluent and run-off from
lawn fertilizers into natural waters
Eutrophication generally promotes excessive plant growth
and decay, favors certain weedy species over others,
and is likely to cause severe reductions in water quality.
In aquatic environments, enhanced growth of choking
aquatic vegetation or phytoplankton (that is, an algal
bloom) disrupts normal functioning of the ecosystem,
causing a variety of problems such as a lack of oxygen
in the water.
The water then becomes cloudy, colored a
shade of green, yellow, brown, or red.
Human society is impacted as well:
eutrophication decreases the resource value
of rivers, lakes, and estuaries such that
recreation, fishing, hunting, and aesthetic
enjoyment are hindered.
Health-related problems can occur where
eutrophic conditions interfere with drinking
water treatment
Eutrophication was recognized as a pollution
problem in European and North American
lakes and reservoirs in the mid-20th
century. Since then, it has become more
widespread. Surveys showed that 54% of
lakes in Asia are eutrophic; in Europe, 53%;
in North America, 48%; in South America,
41%; and in Africa, 28%.
Phosphorus is often regarded as the main culprit in
cases of eutrophication in lakes subjected to
point source pollution from sewage.
The concentration of algae and the trophic state of
lakes correspond well to phosphorus levels in
water.
Eutrophication is also a common phenomenon
in marine, coastal waters.
In contrast to freshwater systems, nitrogen is
more commonly the key limiting nutrient of
marine waters; thus, nitrogen levels have
greater importance to understanding
eutrophication problems in salt water.
Eutrophication is
apparent as increased
turbidity in the
northern part of the
Caspian Sea, imaged
from orbit
Ecological effects
1.Decreased biodiversity
2. Toxicity Some algal blooms, otherwise
called “nuisance algae” or “harmful algal
blooms,” are toxic to plants and animals.
Toxic compounds they produce can make
their way up the food chain, resulting in
animal mortality. Freshwater algal blooms
can pose a threat to livestock. When the
algae die or are eaten, neuro- and
hepatotoxins are released which can kill
animals and may pose a threat to humans.
An example of algal toxins working their way
into humans is the case of shellfish
poisoning. Biotoxins created during algal
blooms are taken up by shellfish (mussels,
oysters), leading to these human foods
acquiring the toxicity and poisoning
humans. Examples include paralytic,
neurotoxic, and diarrhoetic shellfish
poisoning.
Other marine animals can be vectors for such
toxins, as in the case of ciguatera( 雪卡毒
素 ), where it is typically a predator fish
that accumulates the toxin and then poisons
humans.
吃热带珊瑚鱼，如老虎斑、东星斑、西星斑、杉斑、苏眉等石斑
鱼和鲈鱼等，容易增加雪卡毒素中毒的机会。
Bioaccumulation ( 生物富集 ):is a general term for the
accumulation of substances, such as pesticides (DDT
is an example), methylmercury, or other organic
chemicals in an organism or part of an organism. It
refers the increase in concentration of a substance
along the foodchain. Bioaccumlation is the more
general term because it includes all means of uptake
into the organism. Bioaccumulation increase in
concentration of a pollutant from the environment to
the first organism in a food chain
Bioconcentration( 生物浓缩 ) differs from
bioaccumulation because it refers only to the uptake
of substances into the organism from water alone .
Biomagnification( 生物放大 ): increase in
concentration of a pollutant from one link in a food
chain to another.
(2) Persistent Organic Pollutants ( 持久性有机
污染物 ,POPs) : are chemical substances that
persist in the environment, bioaccumulate through
the food web, and pose a risk of causing adverse
effects to human health and the environment. With
the evidence of long-range transport of these
substances to regions where they have never been
used or produced and the consequent threats they
pose to the environment of the whole globe, the
international community has now, at several
occasions called for urgent global actions to
reduce and eliminate releases of these chemicals.
Polychlorinated biphenyls ( 多氯联苯 ,PCBs)
are a group of synthetic organic chemicals
that can cause a number of different
harmful effects.

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers( 多溴联苯

醚 ,PBDEs)