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Daisy Anita, S. Kom.
 Adjectives and Adverbs (1) – Page 73
• An adjective is a word or set of words that modifies a noun or pronoun. Adjectives may
come before the word they modify or follow the word they modify.
Examples:
That is a cute puppy.
She likes a high school senior.
That puppy looks cute.
The technology is state-of-the-art.
• An adverb is a word or set of words that modifies verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.
Adverbs answer how, when, where, why, or to what extent—how often or how
much (e.g., daily, completely).
Examples:
He speaks slowly (tells how)
He speaks very slowly (the adverb very tells how slowly)
She arrived today (tells when)
She will arrive in an hour (this adverb phrase tells when)
Let's go outside (tells where)
Bernie left to avoid trouble (this adverb phrase tells why)
Jorge works out strenuously (tells to what extent)
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Tony works out whenever possible (this adverb phrase tells to what extent)
 Adjectives and Adverbs (2)
• Many adverbs are formed from an adjective + -ly.
ADJECTIVE quick serious careful quiet heavy bad
ADVERB quickly seriously carefully quietly heavily badly

• Not all words ending in –ly are adverbs. Some adjectives end in –ly too:
friendly lively elderly lonely silly lovely

• Examples:
Sam is a careful driver. Sam drove carefully along the narrow road.
We didn’t go out because of the heavy rain. We stayed home because it was raining heavily.

• We use adjectives after some verbs, especially be, look, feel, sound, etc.
e.g. I feel happy. The children were playing happily.
Please be quiet. Please speak quietly.
Why do you always look so serious? Why do you never take me seriously?
• We use adverbs before adjectives, other adverbs or past participles.
e.g. It’s a reasonably cheap restaurant.
The meeting was badly organised.
Two people were seriously injured in the accident.
•3 The exam was surprisingly easy.
 Conjunctions (1) – Page 76

A conjunction is a word which is used to link a word or a group of words to the other part of the sentences
and it shows the relationship between them.
ADDING INFORMATION
and as well as following this further last but not least too
also besides further likewise what is more
additionally besides that furthermore moreover together with
alternatively coupled with indeed not only … , but also … along with
and then equally important in addition (to) not to mention
apart from finally in fact or
as well first, second, third, … last, lastly then, too …

PRESENTING CONSEQUENCES
accordingly for this reason in that case subsequently thereupon
as a result for this purpose otherwise therefore under those circumstances
consequently hence so then thus wherefore

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Conjunctions (2)

GIVING EXAMPLES
for example in another case particularly by way of illustration on this occasion
as an example in particular specifically like case in point
chiefly including take the case of viz. (videlicet)
for instance markedly to demonstrate to be specific
especially namely to illustrate as follows
illustrated with notably as an illustration as below

CLARIFYING INFORMATION WHICH HAS BEEN PRESENTED

above all in other words that is to say under certain circumstances
I mean in this case to put it in another way up to a point
what I mean is

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Conjunctions (3)

GENERALIZING INFORMATION AND FACTS

as a rule for the most part generally speaking usually widely
as usual generally ordinarily universally commonly
overall all in all broadly on average by and large
more often than not extensively popularly in general terms mainly
mostly basically predominantly on the whole

COMPARING AND CONTRASTING

but conversely in contrast likewise on the other hand
by the same token equally in a like manner nevertheless rather
by way of contrast however instead on one hand similarly
still though whereas while yet
nevertheless despite in spite of although even though

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 Conjunctions (4)

PRESENTING SEQUENTIAL INFORMATION

afterwards first, second, third, … in the first place meanwhile then
at first last / lastly in time next to begin with
at the same time first and foremost in turn the next step soon
earlier for now later in the meantime simultaneously
first of all for the tie being later on from this day on while
henceforth from this point onward hitherto until now before
before hand formerly previously

SUMMARIZING
after all briefly in any event in the end on the whole
all in all by and large in brief in the final analysis overall
all things considered finally in conclusion in the long run to conclude
altogether in a word in short lastly to put it briefly
as a final point in any case in summary on balance to sum up / summarize

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 Correlative conjunctions (1) – page 80
• Correlative conjunctions are pairs such as neither ... nor, not ... only, and but ...
also.
• These conjuctions connect two balanced clauses, phrases, or words.
• The two elements that correlative conjunctions connect are usually similar in
length and grammatical structure.
• Examples:
either ... or
e.g. We can go to either Greece or Spain for our holiday.
It’s my final offer – you can either take it or leave it.
both ... and
e.g. Both rugby and football are popular in France.
Both English and Welsh are spoken in Wales.
not only ... but also
e.g. Not only is he a professional footballer, but he’s also a successful
businessman.
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Correlative conjunctions (2)

not ... but

e.g. There are not two but three Baltic states: Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia.
In sport, what counts is not the winning but the taking part.
neither . . . nor
e.g. Neither Norway nor Switzerland is in the European Union.
Marriage is neither heaven nor hell, it is simply purgatory. (Abraham
Lincoln)
whether ... or
e.g. Whether you love them or hate them, you have to admit that the
Rolling Stones are very popular.
I’m totally confused – I don’t know whether I’m coming or going.
no sooner ... than
e.g. No sooner had I finished watering the garden than it started raining.

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 Correlative conjunctions (3)
• Subject-verb agreement:
The verb which follows two subjects joined by or must agree with the second
subject, NOT the first:
Examples:
Either my brother or my mum look looks after our cat when we’re away on
holiday.
Either my brother or my parents looks look after our cat when we’re away on
holiday.
Neither the manager nor his assistant are is here today.
Neither the manager nor his assistants is are here today.

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 Compound Adjectives (1) – Page 87
• The hyphen makes a big difference.

I saw a man-eating alligator. I saw a man eating alligator.

• A compound adjective is an adjective that contains two or more words.

• In general we put a hyphen between two or more words (before a noun) when
we want them to act as a single idea (adjective) that describes something.
e.g. I live in an English-speaking country.
Our office is in a twenty-storey building.
I have just finished reading a 300-page book.
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He is a well-known writer.
 Compound Adjectives (2)
• Types of Compound Adjectives:

Compound Adjectives + Periods of Time

When he have compound adjectives using numbers + a time period, that word
referring to a time period is in singular form and is joined to the number with a
hyphen.
e.g. I'm going on vacation for three weeks --> I have a three-week vacation
There was a delay of 5 seconds --> There was a five-second delay
Notice how we normally write the number as a word, not in numerical form.
Adverbs and Compound Adjectives
Adverbs modify a verb / an adjective.
e.g. She walks slowly.
It is very hot today.
Notice how we do not put a hyphen between an adverb and an adjective (not
even before a noun).
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Compound Adjectives (3)

Adverb + past participle

e.g. This is a brightly-lit room.
She is a well-known actress.
We live in a densely-populated city.

Noun + Past Participle

e.g. We should start using wind-powered generators to cut costs.
I love eating sun-dried raisins.
Noun + Present Participle
e.g. I bought some mouth-watering strawberries.
That was a record-breaking jump.
Noun + Adjective
e.g. She is a world-famous singer.
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This is a smoke-free restaurant.
Compound Adjectives (4)

Adjective + Noun
e.g. It was a last-minute decision.
We watched the full-length version of the movie.
Adjective + Past Participle
e.g. That is an old-fashioned dress
Reptiles are cold-blooded creatures.
Adjective + Present Participle
e.g. She is a good-looking girl.
It left a long-lasting taste in my mouth.
Compound Adjectives with Proper Nouns
A proper noun is the name of something or someone (e.g. John, Susan
Sanders). Compound Adjectives made from Proper nouns don't need a hyphen
though must have capital letters.
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e.g. I bought the James Jackson tickets for us.
 Relative Clauses (1) – Page 96

Formation
Imagine, a girl is talking to Tom. You want to know who she is and ask a
friend whether he knows her. You could say:
A girl is talking to Tom. Do you know the girl?
That sounds rather complicated, doesn't it? It would be easier with a
relative clause: you put both pieces of information into one sentence.

Start with the most important thing  – you want to know who the girl is.

Do you know the girl …

As your friend cannot know which girl you are talking about, you need to put in the additional information  –
the girl is talking to Tom.
Use “the girl“ only in the first part of the sentence, in the second part replace it with
the relative pronoun (for people, use the relative pronoun who).
So the final sentence is:
Do you know the girl who is talking to Tom?
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 Relative Clauses (2)

Relative Pronouns

RELATIVE
PRONOUN USE EXAMPLE

who subject or object pronoun for people I told you about the woman who lives next door.
which subject or object pronoun for animals and things Do you see the cat which is lying on the roof?

which referring to a whole sentence He couldn’t read which surprised me.

whose possession for people animals and things Do you know the boy whose mother is a nurse?

whom object pronoun for people, especially in non- I was invited by the professor whom I met at the
defining relative clauses (in defining relative conference.
clauses we colloquially prefer who)
that subject or object pronoun for people, animals I don’t like the table that stands in the kitchen.
and things in defining relative clauses
(who or which are also possible)

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 Relative Clauses (3)

RELATIVE ADVERB MEANING USE EXAMPLE

when in/on which refers to a time expression the day when we met him
where in/at which refers to a place the place where we met him
why for which refers to a reason the reason why we met him

Defining Relative Clauses

• Defining relative clauses (also called identifying relative clauses or restrictive relative clauses) give detailed
information defining a general term or expression.
• Defining relative clauses are not put in commas.
• Imagine, Tom is in a room with five girls. One girl is talking to Tom and you ask somebody
whether he knows this girl. Here the relative clause defines which of the five girls you mean.
Do you know the girl who is talking to Tom?
• Defining relative clauses are often used in definitions.
e.g. A seaman is someone who works on a ship.
• Object pronouns in defining relative clauses can be dropped. (Sentences with a relative clause
without the relative pronoun are called Contact Clauses.)
e.g. The boy (who/whom) we met yesterday is very nice.

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 Relative Clauses (4)

Non-defining Relative Clauses

• Non-defining relative clauses (also called non-identifying relative clauses or non-restrictive relative clauses)
give additional information on something, but do not define it.
• Non-defining relative clauses are put in commas.
• Imagine, Tom is in a room with only one girl. The two are talking to each other and you ask somebody
whether he knows this girl. Here the relative clause is non-defining because in this situation it is obvious
which girl you mean.
Do you know the girl, who is talking to Tom?
• Note: In non-defining relative clauses, who/which may not be replaced with that.
• Object pronouns in non-defining relative clauses must be used.
e.g. Jim, who/whom we met yesterday, is very nice.

How to Shorten Relative Clauses

• Active relative clauses with who, which, that as subject pronoun can be replaced with a present
participle. This makes the sentence shorter and easier to understand.
e.g. I told you about the woman who lives next door. – I told you about the woman living next door.
Do you see the cat which is lying on the roof? – Do you see the cat lying on the roof?
• A past participle can be used to shorten a passive relative clause:
e.g. Strawberries which are grown in California are delicious = Strawberries grown in California are
delicious.
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Gerunds and Infinitives (1) – Page 101

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Gerunds and Infinitives (2)

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 The only normal way to begin speaking in a
new language is
to begin speaking badly.

Greg Thomson
Daisy Anita, S. Kom

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Tax Center

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