ATOMS AND MOLECULES

The idea of divisibility of matter was considered long back in India, around 500 BC. An Indian philosopher
Maharishi Kanad, postulated that if we go on dividing matter (padarth), we shall get smaller and smaller particles.
Ultimately, a time will come when we shall come across the smallest particles beyond which further division will not be
possible. He named these particles Parmanu. Another Indian philosopher,
Pakudha Katyayama, elaborated this doctrine and said that these particles normally exist in a combined form which gives us
various forms of matter.

Around the same era, ancient Greek philosophers – Democritus and Leucippus suggested that if we go on dividing matter, a
stage will come when particles obtained cannot be divided further. Democritus called these indivisible particles atoms
(meaning indivisible). All this was based on philosophical considerations and not much experimental work to validate these
ideas could be done till the eighteenth century.

By the end of the eighteenth century, scientists recognised the difference between elements and compounds and naturally
became interested in finding out how and why elements combine and what happens when they combine.Antoine L.
Lavoisier laid the foundation of chemical sciences by establishing two important laws of chemical combination.
Activity ______________ 3.1

Laws of Chemical Combination:The following two laws of chemical combination were established after much experimentations
by Lavoisier and Joseph L. Proust.
Law of conservation of mass states that mass can neither be created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.

Observation: Heating the solution separately or mixed does not change the mass.Mixing the solution result in
chemical reactions but the mass of the flask remains the same.
Explanation:
Mass of the sum of reactants and the products during a chemical reaction remain constant. For example, if we react
23 grams of Sodium and 35.5 gm of chlorine (23 and 35.5 gm correspond to molecular weight), the resultant sodium
chloride will be 58.5 gm always.
Here, when we heat the mixture separately, no reaction takes place. Since flask is closed by the cork, the vapours of
water molecule do not escape and condense back to the bottom. As a result, we see no change in mass.When we swirl
the conical flask, the mixture from the ignition tube comes out and mix with the solution in the flask. It results in the
chemical reaction given below:

1.Barium chloride reacts with sodium sulphate and forms a white precipitate of barium sulphate.Mass of the
substance is constant in all these reactions.

BaCl2+Na2SO4 BaSO4 (PPT)+ NaCl2

LAW OF CONSTANT PROPORTIONS
Lavoisier, along with other scientists, noted that many compounds were composed
of two or more elements and each such compound had the same elements in the
same proportions, irrespective of where the compound came from or who
prepared it. In a compound such as water, the ratio of the mass of hydrogen to the
mass of oxygen is always 1:8, whatever the source of water.
Thus, if 9 g of water is decomposed, 1 g of hydrogen and 8 g of oxygen are always
obtained. Similarly in ammonia, nitrogen and hydrogen are always present in the
ratio 14:3 by mass, whatever the method or the source from which it is obtained.
This led to the law of constant proportions
which is also known as the law of definite proportions. This law was stated by
Proust as “In a chemical substance the elements are always present in definite
proportions by mass”.
LAW OF CONSTANT PROPORTIONS:
This law was stated by Proust as
“In a chemical substance the elements are always present in definite
proportions by mass”

• Whatever may be the source of water, it will always have two

atoms of Hydrogen and one atom of Oxygen.
• Therefore 2g of H
will always combine with 16g of Oxygen to
2
form one molecule of water. In other words the ratio in which
Hydrogen and Oxygen combine to form water is 1: 8.
(i) All matter is made of very tiny particles called atoms.

(ii) Atoms are indivisible particles, which cannot be created or destroyed in a

chemical reaction.

(iii) Atoms of a given element are identical in mass and chemical properties.
(iv) Atoms of different elements have different masses and chemical
properties.

(v) Atoms combine in the ratio of small whole numbers to form compounds.

(vi) The relative number and kinds of atoms are constant in a given
compound.
Page: 32
1. In a reaction, 5.3g of sodium carbonate reacted with 6 g of acetic acid. The products were 2.2 g of carbon dioxide, 0.9 g water and 8.2 g
of sodium acetate. Show that these observations are in agreement with the law of conservation of mass.
Sodium carbonate + acetic acid → Sodium acetate + carbon dioxide + water Na2 CO3 + 2 CH3COOH → 2 CH3COONa + CO2 + H2O
Solution:
Sodium carbonate + acetic acid → Sodium acetate + carbon dioxide + water
5.3g 6g 8.2g 2.2g 0.9g
As per the law of conservation of mass, the total mass of reactants must be equal to the total mass of products
As per the above reaction, LHS = RHS i.e., 5.3g + 6g = 2.2g + 0.9 g + 8.2 g = 11.3 g
Hence the observations are in agreement with the law of conservation of mass.

2. Hydrogen and oxygen combine in the ratio of 1:8 by mass to form water. What mass of oxygen gas would be required to react completely
with 3 g of hydrogen gas?
Solution: We know hydrogen and water mix in the ratio 1: 8. For every 1g of hydrogen, it is 8g of oxygen. Therefore, for 3g of hydrogen,
the quantity of oxygen = 3 x 8 = 24g
Hence, 24g of oxygen would be required for the complete reaction with 3g of hydrogen gas.

3. Which postulate of Dalton’s atomic theory is the result of the law of conservation of mass?
Solution: The postulate of Dalton’s Atomic theory which is a result of the law of conservation of mass is,
“Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed”.

4.Which postulate of Dalton’s atomic theory can explain the law of definite proportions?
Ans: The postulate of Dalton's atomic theory that can explain the law of definite proportions is - the relative number and kinds of atoms are
equal in given compounds.
Symbols of elements
 ATOMIC MASS
DETERMINING THE INDIVIDUAL MASS OF AN ATOM IS DIFFICULT SO THE RELATIVE ATOMIC
MASSES WERE DETERMINED USING LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATIONS AND THE
COMPOUNDS FORMED.
FOR EXAMPLE,IT WAS EXPERIMENTALLY FOUND THAT 3G OF CARBON COMBINES WITH 4G OF
OXYGEN TO FORM 7G OF CO.
IN OTHER WORDS 1G OF C WILL COMBINE WITH 4/3G OF OXYGEN.
HENCE 12G OF C WILL COMBINE WITH 16G OF OXYGEN.
EARLIER OXYGEN ATOM WAS TAKEN AS A STANDARD AS IT COULD COMBINE WITH LARGE
NUMBER OF ELEMENTS AND ALSO THE ATOMIC MASSES OF THE ELEMENTS WERE OBTAINED
AS WHOLE NUMBERS.
LATER IN 1961 C -12 ISOTOPE WAS TAKEN AS STANDARD REFERENCE FOR MEASURING
ATOMIC MASSES.
ONE ATOMIC MASS UNIT IS A MASS UNIT EQUAL TO EXACTLY ONE-TWELFTH (1/12) MASS OF
ONE C12 ATOM. THE RELATIVE ATOMIC MASSES OF OTHER ELEMENTS HAVE BEEN FOUND
WITH RESPECT TO AN ATOM OF C12.
EARLIER THE UNIT FOR ATOMIC MASS WAS AMU , BUT ACCORDING TO LATEST IUPAC
RECOMMENDATIONS, IT IS NOW WRITTEN AS ‘U’-UNIFIED MASS.
 • WHAT IS A MOLECULE?
• A molecule in general is a group of two or more atoms chemically bonded together.
• A molecule can be defined as the smallest particle of an element that is capable of independent existence
and shows all the properties of that substance.
• The molecules of an element are constituted by the same type of atoms.
• The molecule of an element may be monoatomic, if it is made of a single atom. Eg. He, Ar & Ne.
• It may be diatomic if it is made of two atoms . E.g.. H2, O2 Cl2etc.
• It may be polyatomic if it is made of more than two atoms. E.g.. O3, p4 and s8 .
• Atoms of different elements combine together in definite proportions to form molecules of compounds.Eg.
H2O, NaCl
 WHAT IS AN ION?
• Compounds composed of metals and non-metals contain
charged species. These charged species are known as ions. A
positively charged ion is called cation and negatively charge
ion is called anion. In Nacl, Na+ ion is the cation and cl- ion
is the anion.
• Ions may consist of a single charged atom or group of atoms
having a net charge. A group of atoms carrying a net charge is
called poly atomic ion. Eg. (OH) , (CO3) etc.
 Page: 35
5. Define the atomic mass unit?

Solution: An atomic mass unit is a unit of mass used to express weights of

atoms and molecules where one atomic mass is equal to 1/12th the mass of one
carbon-12 atom.

6. Why is it not possible to see an atom with naked eyes?

Solution: Firstly, atoms are miniscule in nature, measured in nanometers.

Secondly, except for atoms of noble gasses, they do not exist independently.
Hence, an atom cannot be visible to the naked eyes.
 WRITING CHEMICAL FORMULAE

WRITING CHEMICAL FORMULAE

• THE CHEMICAL FORMULA OF A COMPOUND IS A SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION OF

ITS COMPOSITION.
• THE COMBINING POWER(OR CAPACITY) OF AN ELEMENT IS KNOWN AS ITS
VALENCY.
 • RULES FOR WRITING A CHEMICAL FORMULA
• The valency or the charges on the ions must balance.
• When a compound consists of a metal and non-metal, the name or
symbol of the metal should be written first ( on the left ) and then the
symbol of the non-metal(on the right).
• In a compound having polyatomic ions. The number of the ions present in
the compound is indicated by enclosing the formula of ion in a bracket and
writing the number of ions outside the bracket as a subscript.
• E.g. Ca(OH)2 ; (NH4)2SO4
FORMULA OF SIMPLE COMPOUNDS
1. Write down the formulae of
(i) sodium oxide
(ii) aluminium chloride
(iii) sodium suphide
(iv) magnesium hydroxide
Write down the names of compounds represented by the following formulae:
(i) Al2(SO4)3 (ii) CaCl2 (iii) K2SO4 (iv) KNO3 (v) CaCO3.
Solution: Listed below are the names of the compounds for each of the following formulae
(i) Al2(SO4)3 - Aluminium sulphate
(ii) CaCl2 - Calcium chloride
(iii) K2SO4 - Potassium sulphate
(iv) KNO3 - Potassium nitrate
(v) CaCO3 - Calcium carbonate

Question 2. What is meant by the term chemical formula?

Answer: The chemical formula of the compound is a symbolic representation of its
composition, e.g., chemical formula of sodium chloride is NaCl.

Question 3. How many atoms are present in a

(i) H2S molecule and (ii) P043- ion?
Answer: (i) H2S —> 3 atoms are present
(ii) P043- —> 5 atoms are present
MOLECULAR MASS
In section 3.2.2 we discussed the concept of atomic mass. This concept can be extended to
calculate molecular masses. The molecular mass of a substance is the sum of the atomic
masses of all the atoms in a molecule of them substance. It is therefore the relative mass of
a molecule expressed in atomic mass units (u).

Example 3.1 (a) Calculate the relative molecular mass of water (H2O).
(b) Calculate the molecular mass of HNO3.
Solution: (a) Atomic mass of hydrogen = 1u,
oxygen = 16 u
So the molecular mass of water, which contains two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of
oxygen is = 2 × 1+ 1×16 = 18 u
(b) The molecular mass of HNO3
The atomic mass of H + the atomic mass of N+ 3 × the atomic mass of O
= 1 + 14 + 48 = 63 u
FORMULA UNIT MASS
 The formula unit mass of a substance is a sum of the atomic masses
of all atoms in a formula unit of a compound.
 Formula unit mass is calculated in the same manner as we calculate
the molecular mass.
 The only difference is that we use the word formula unit for those
substances whose constituent particles are ions.
 For example, sodium chloride as discussed above, has a formula unit
NaCl.
 Its formula unit mass can be calculated as– 1 × 23 + 1 × 35.5 = 58.5 u

Example 3.2 Calculate the formula unit mass of CaCl2.

Solution: Atomic mass of Ca + (2 × atomic mass of Cl)
= 40 + 2 × 35.5 = 40 + 71 = 111 u
• MOLE CONCEPT
• 2H2 + O2 2 H2O.
• THE ABOVE REACTION INDICATES THAT 2 MOLECULES OF HYDROGEN COMBINES WITH ONE
MOLECULE OF OXYGEN TO GIVE 2 MOLECULES OF WATER.
• OR
• 4G OF HYDROGEN COMBINES WITH 32G OF OXYGEN TO GIVE 36G OF WATER.
• A CHEMICAL EQUATION INDICATES THE NUMBER OF ATOMS OR MOLECULES TAKING PART
RATHER THAN THE MASS. SO IT IS CONVENIENT TO REFER THE QUANTITY OF A SUBSTANCE IN
TERMS OF THE NUMBER OF ATOMS OR MOLECULES. SO A NEW UNIT ‘MOLE’ WAS INTRODUCED.
ONE MOLE OF ANY SPECIES(IONS, ATOMS MOLECULES OR PARTICLES) IS THAT QUANTITY IN
NUMBER HAVING A MASS EQUAL TO ITS ATOMIC MASS OR MOLECULAR MASS IN GRAMS.
• THE NUMBER OF PARTICLES IN 1 MOLE OF ANY SUBSTANCE IS FIXED WITH A VALUE 6.022X1023.
THIS NUMBER IS CALLED AVOGADRO NUMBER.
 Page: 40
11. Calculate the molecular masses of H2 , O2 , Cl2, CO2, CH4, C2H6, C2H4, NH3,CH3OH.
The molecular mass of H2 – 2 x atoms atomic mass of H = 2 x 1u = 2u
The molecular mass of O2 – 2 x atoms atomic mass of O = 2 x 16u = 32u
The molecular mass of Cl2 – 2 x atoms atomic mass of Cl = 2 x 35.5u = 71u
The molecular mass of CO2 - atomic mass of C + 2 x atomic mass of O = 12 + ( 2x16)u = 44u
The molecular mass of CH4 - atomic mass of C + 4 x atomic mass of H = 12 + ( 4 x 1)u = 16u

The molecular mass of C2H6- 2 x atomic mass of C + 6 x atomic mass of H = (2 x 12) +

(6 x 1)u=24+6=30u

The molecular mass of C2H4- 2 x atomic mass of C + 4 x atomic mass of H = (2x 12) +
(4 x 1)u=24+4=28u

The molecular mass of NH3- atomic mass of N + 3 x atomic mass of H = (14 +3 x 1)u= 17u
The molecular mass of CH3OH - atomic mass of C + 3x atomic mass of H + atomic mass of O +
atomic mass of H = (12 + 3x1+16+1)u=(12+3+17)u = 32u
 NUMERICALS.

• THE MASS OF 1 MOLE OF A SUBSTANCE IS EQUAL TO ITS RELATIVE ATOMIC OR

MOLECULAR MASS IN GRAMS.
• EG. 1 MOLE OF H ATOM HAS A MASS OF 1G. IT MEANS 1G OF H ATOM HAS
6.022X1023ATOMS OF HYDROGEN.
• 1 MOLE OF H2O HAS A MASS OF 18G. IT MEANS 18 G OF H2O HAS 6.022X1023
MOLECULES OF H2O.
 NUMERICALS.

• THE MASS OF 1 MOLE OF A SUBSTANCE IS EQUAL TO ITS RELATIVE ATOMIC OR

MOLECULAR MASS IN GRAMS.
• EG. 1 MOLE OF H ATOM HAS A MASS OF 1G. IT MEANS 1G OF H ATOM HAS
6.022X1023ATOMS OF HYDROGEN.
• 1 MOLE OF H2O HAS A MASS OF 18G. IT MEANS 18 G OF H2O HAS 6.022X1023
MOLECULES OF H2O.
EXERCISE QUESTION (PG.44 Q.7)
 EXERCISE QUESTIONS
• 10.CALCULATE THE NUMBER OF MOLECULES OF SULPHUR(S8) PRESENT IN 16G OF SULPHUR.
• MOLECULAR MASS OF S= 8X32=256 U.
• SO MOLAR MASS OF S= 256G = 6.022X10 23 MOLECULES.
• HENCE 16G OF S WILL HAVE = 16X 6.022X1023
• 256
• = 3.76X1022 MOLECULES.
• 11. CALCULATE THE NUMBER OF ALUMINIUM IONS PRESENT IN 0.051G OF ALUMINIUM OXIDE.
• ALUMINIUM OXIDE HAS A FORMULA AL 2O3

• 1 MOLE OF AL2O3 HAS 2 TIMES AVOGADRO NUMBER OF IONS.

• MOLAR MASS OF AL2O3= 102G

• 102G HAS 2X 6.022X10 23 IONS OF AL.
• SO 0.051G OF AL2O3 WILL HAVE = 0.051X 2X 6.022X10 23 = 3.011X1020 IONS.
• 102

•
1. Write down the formulae of
(i) sodium oxide
(ii) aluminium chloride
(iii) sodium suphide
(iv) magnesium hydroxide