Processor design

Reference: 1. Computer system architecture

M.M.Mano (3rd Edition)
2. Internet sources
Computer architecture refers to those parameters of a computer system that are visible to a
programmer or those parameters that have a direct impact on the logical execution of a
program. Examples of architectural attributes include the instruction set, the number of bits
used to represent different data types, I/O mechanisms, and techniques for addressing
memory.
Computer organization refers to the operational units and their interconnections that realize the
architectural specifications. Examples of organizational attributes include those hardware
details transparent to the programmer, such as control signals, interfaces between the
computer and peripherals, and the memory technology used.
Computer design is concerned with the hardware design of the computer. Once the computer
specifications are formulated, it is the task of the designer to develop hardware for the system.
Computer design is concerned with the determination of what hardware should be used and
how the parts should be connected. This aspect of computer hardware is sometimes referred to
as computer implementation
 VON NEUMANN ARCHITECURE describes a general framework, or structure, that a computer's hardware,
programming, and data should follow. Although other structures for computing have been devised and
implemented, the vast majority of computers in use today operate according to the von Neumann
architecture. It has following components:
ALU: The Arithmetic-Logic unit that performs the computer's computational and logical functions.
RAM: Memory; more specifically, the computer's main, or fast, memory, also known as Random Access
Memory(RAM).
Control Unit: This is a component that directs other components of the computer to perform certain actions,
such as directing the fetching of data or instructions from memory to be processed by the ALU; and
Man-machine interfaces; i.e. input and output devices, such as keyboard for input and display monitor for
output.
 A micro operation: It is an elementary operation performed on the information stored in
one or more registers. The result of the operation may replace the previous binary
information of a register or may be transferred to another register. Examples shift, count,
clear, and load
The internal hardware organization of a digital computer is best defined by specifying:
1. The set of registers it contains and their function.
2. The sequence of micro operations performed on the binary information
stored in the registers.
3. The control that initiates the sequence of micro operations.
Types of Micro-Operations
a. Register transfer micro-operations transfer binary information from one register to
another.
b. Arithmetic micro-operations perform arithmetic operations on numeric data stored in
registers.
c. Logic micro-operations perform bit manipulation operation on non-numeric data
stored in registers.
d. Shift micro-operations perform shift micro-operations performed on data.

1. R3 ← R1 + R2 (Contents of R1+R2 transferred to R3)

2. R3 ← R1 - R2 (Contents of R1-R2 transferred to R3)
3. R2 ← (R2)'Compliment the contents of R2.
4. R2 ← (R2)' + 1 (2's compliment the contents of R2)
5. R1 ← R1 + 1 (Increment the contents of R1 by 1)
6. R1 ← R1 – 1 (Decrement the contents of R1 by 1)
A register transfer language is a system for expressing in symbolic form the micro operation
sequences among the registers of a digital module. It is a convenient tool for describing the
internal organization of digital computers in concise and precise manner. It can also be used to
facilitate the design process of digital systems.
P: R2 <--R1
denotes a transfer of the content of register R1 into register R2. It designates a replacement of the
content of R2 by the content of R l where P is control function
If all the bits of register are loaded simultaneously with a common clock pulse than the loading is
said to be done in parallel.
Letters (and numerals) Denotes a register eg MAR
Parentheses ( ):Denotes a part of a register R2(0-7), R2(L)
Arrow <- Denotes transfer of information R2<-R1
Comma , Separates two microoperations R2<-R1, R1<-R2
 Types of Registers
A Register is a group of flip-flops with each flip-flop capable of storing one bit of information.
An n-bit register has a group of n flip-flops and is capable of storing binary information
of n-bits.

The transfer of new information into a register is referred to as loading the

register.
a. Accumulator (AC) (16 bit): This is the most common register, used to store data taken
out from the memory.
b. Data Register DR (16 bit):
c. Program Counter PC (12 bits): holds address of next instruction
d. Instruction Register IR (16 bits): Holds the instruction to be executed
e. Address register AR (12). Holds address for memory
f. TR (16 bits) temporary register :Holds temporary data
g. INPR (8 bits) Input Register : Holds input character
h. OUTR ( 8 bits) output register: Holds output character
P: R2<-R1
4 bit multiplexer
• The number of multiplexers is equal to
number of bits of each registers. Size of
each multiplexer must be d : 1 where d data
lines are multiplexed with d number of
registers