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PPT4. PlasticityIITK
PPT4. PlasticityIITK
Mechanical Metallurgy
George E Dieter
McGraw-Hill Book Company, London (1988)
Introduction
Tapany Udomphol
Suranaree University of Technology May-Aug 2007
Idealised flow curves
Due to considerable mathematical complexity concerning the
theory of plasticity, the idealised flow curves are therefore
utilised to simplify the mathematics.
1) Rigid ideal plastic material : no elastic strain, no strain
hardening.
2) Perfectly plastic material with an elastic region, i.e., plain
carbon steel.
3) Piecewise linear (strain-hardening material) : with elastic
region and strain hardening region € more realistic approach
but complicated mathematics.
(c) Piecewise linear (stain-
(a) Rigid ideal plastic (b) Ideal plastic material hardening) material.
material. with elastic region.
Tapany Udomphol
Suranaree University of Technology May-Aug 2007
If failure is considered as change in desired performance*- which could involve changes in
properties and/or shape; then failure can occur by many mechanisms as below.
Elastic deformation
Particle coarsening
Modes Bending
Tension/Compression of
Deformation Shear
Bending
Shear Torsion
Torsion
Bendin
g
Deformed configuration
Shea Torsio
r n
Tensio Compressio
n n
Note: modes of deformation in other contexts will be defined in the topic on plasticity
Peak ahead
In addition to the modes of deformation considered before the following modes can be
defined w.r.t fracture.
Fracture can be cause by the propagation of a pre-existing crack (e.g. the notches shown
in the figures below) or by the nucleation of a crack during deformation followed by its
propagation.
In fracture the elastic energy stored in the material is used for the creation of new surfaces
(when the crack nucleates/propagates)
Mode I
Modes
of Mode II
Deformation
Mode III
The Uniaxial Tension Test (UTT)
One of the simplest test which can performed to evaluate the mechanical properties of a
material is the Uniaxial Tension Test.
This is typically performed on a cylindrical specimen with a standard ‘gauge length’. (At
constant temperature and strain rate).
The test involves pulling a material with increasing load (force) and noting the elongation
(displacement) of the specimen.
Data acquired from such a test can be plotted as: (i) load-stroke (raw data), (ii) engineering
stress- engineering strain, (iii) true stress- true strain. (next slide).
It is convenient to use Engineering Stress (s) and Engineering Strain (e) as defined below
as we can divide the load and change in length by constant quantities (A 0 and L0).
Subscripts ‘0’ refer to initial values and ‘i’ to instantaneous values.
But there are problems with the use of ‘s’ and ‘e’ (as outlined in the coming slides) and
hence we define True Stress () and True Strain () (wherein we use instantaneous values
of length and area).
Though this is simple test to conduct and a wealth of information about the mechanical
behaviour of a material can be obtained (Modulus of elasticity, ductility etc.) However,
it must be cautioned that this data should be used with caution under other states of stress.
0 → initial
P L
s e Subscript
Note: quantities obtained by performing an
A0 L0 Uniaxial Tension Test are valid only under
uniaxial state of stress
i → instantaneous
The Tensile Stress-Strain Curve
Load →
Tensile specimen
Stroke →
Gauge Length → L0
Possible axes
s →
e →
Initial cross sectional area → A0
→
Important Note
1 L0
e1→2 = 1
e2→3 = ½
3 L0
P L
dL L
ln
Ai L0
L L0
Ai → instantaneous area
P L
s e
A0 L0
Same sequence of deformations considered before:
1 L0
1→2 = Ln(2)
2→3 = Ln(2)
3 L0
With true strain things turn out the way they should!
Schematic s-e and - curves These are simplified schematics which are close to the
curves obtained for some metallic materials like Al, Cu
etc. (polycrystalline materials at room temperature).
Many materials (e.g. steel) may have curves which are
qualitatively very different from these schematics.
Most ceramics are brittle with very little plastic
deformation.
Even these diagrams are not to scale as the strain at
yield is ~0.001 (eelastic ~10–3)
[E is measured in GPa and y in MPa thus giving
this small strains]
the linear portion is practically vertical and stuck to
the Y-axis (when efracture and eelastic is drawn to the same
scale).
Note the increasing stress required
for continued plastic deformation
Schematics: not to
formation gained from the test: scale
Young’s modulus
) Yield stress (or proof stress)
Neck
i) Ultimate Tensile Stress (UTS)
v) Fracture stress
Points and regions of the curves are explained in the next slide
Sequence of events during the tension test
O unloaded specimen
OY Elastic Linear Region in the plot (macroscopic linear elastic region)
Y macroscopic yield point (there are many measures of yielding as discussed later)
Occurs due to collective motion of many dislocations.
YF Elastic + Plastic regime
If specimen is unloaded from any point in this region, it will unload parallel to OY and the
elastic strain would be recovered. Actually, more strain will be recovered than unloading from Y
(and hence in some sense in the region YF the sample is ‘more elastic’ than in the elastic region
OY).
In this region the material strain hardens flow stress increases with strain.
This region can further be split into YN and NF as below.
YN Stable region with uniform deformation along the gauge length
N Instability in tension Onset of necking
True condition of uniaxiality broken onset of triaxial state of stress (loading remains uniaxial
but the state of stress in the cylindrical specimen is not).
NF most of the deformation is localized at the neck
Specimen in a triaxial state of stress
F Fracture of specimen (many polycrystalline materials like Al show cup and cone fracture)
Notes:
In the - plot there is no distinct point N and there is no drop in load (as instantaneous area has been taken into account in the definition of
) in the elastic + plastic regime (YF)
The stress is monotonically increasing in the region YF true indicator of strain hardening
Comparison between “Engineering” and “True” quantities:
In engineering stress since we are dividing by a constant number A 0 (and there is a local
reduction in area around the neck)
‘Engineering’ and ‘true’ values are related by the equations as below.
At low strains (in the uniaxial tension test) either of the values work fine.
As we shall see that during the tension test localized plastic deformation occurs after some
strain (called necking). This leads to inhomogeneity in the stress across the length of the
sample and under such circumstances true stress should be used.
A0 Li
From volume constancy A 0 L 0 =A i Li
Ai L0
P
Ai
P A0
A0 Ai
L L
s i s 1 i 1 s (1 e)
L0 L0
s( 1 e) Valid till
necking starts
ε ln ( 1 e)
L
dL L L
L
L0
ln
L0
ln 1 1 ln(1+e)
L0
In some materials (e.g. pure annealed Cu, gray cast iron etc.) the linear portion of the curve
may be limited and yield strength may arbitrarily determined as the stress at some given
strain (say 0.005).
Important Note
y is yield stress in an uniaxial tension test and should not be used in other states of stress
(other criteria of yield should be used for a generalized state of stress).
Tresca and von Mices criterion are the two most popular ones.
What is meant by ductility?
Slip is competing with other processes which can lead to failure.
In simple terms a ductile material is one which yields before failure (i.e. y < f).
Ductility depends on the state of stress used during deformation.
We can obtain an measure of the ‘ductility’ of a material from the uniaxial tension test as
follows (by putting together the fractured parts to make the measurement):
Strain at fracture (ef) (usually expressed as %), (often called elongation, although it is a dimensionless quantity)
Reduction in area at fracture (q) (usually expressed as %)
Note: this is ductility in
L f L0 A0 Af Uniaxial Tension Test
e f (%) 100 q (%) 100
L0 A0
‘q’ is a better measure of ductility as it does not depend on the gauge length (L0); while,
‘ef’ depends on L0. Elongation/strain to necking (uniform elongation) can also be used to
avoid the complication arising from necking. L L0
eu (%) u 100
Also, ‘q’ is a ‘more’ structure sensitive ductility parameter. L0
Neck
Fractured surfaces
‘True’ values beyond necking
Calculation of true strain beyond necking:
‘True’ strain values beyond necking can be obtained by using the concept of zero-gauge-
length elongation (e0). This involves measurement of instantaneous area.
q 1
ε ln ( 1 e) Beyond necking ε0 ln( 1 e0 ) ε0 ln 1 ln
q 1 q 1 q
e0
A0 Ai 1 q
q
A0
Note: Further complications arise at strains close to fracture as microvoid nucleation &
growth take place and hence all formulations based on continuum approach (e.g. volume
constancy) etc. are not valid anymore.
Cotd.. ‘True’ values beyond necking
Calculation of true Stress beyond necking:
Neck acts like a diffuse notch. This produces a triaxial state of stress (radial and transverse
components of stress exist in addition to the longitudinal component) this raises the
value of the longitudinal stress required to case plastic flow.
Using certain assumptions (as below) some correction to the state of stress can be made*
(given that the state of stress is triaxial, such a correction should be viewed appropriately).
Assumptions used in the correction*: neck is circular (radius = R), von Mises’ criterion
can be used for yielding, strains are constant across the neck.
The corrected uniaxial stress (uniaxial) is calculated from the stress from the experiment
(exp=Load/Alocal), using the formula as below.
The Correction
exp
uniaxial
2R a
1 ln 1
A 2 R
Pf A0 1
f f ln ln
Af
Af
1 q f
Unloading the specimen during the tension test
If the specimen is unloaded beyond the yield point (say point ‘X’ in figure below), elastic
strain is recovered (while plastic strain is not). The unloading path is XM.
The strain recovered ( elastic
Y
) is more than that recovered if the specimen was to be
unloaded from ‘Y’ ( elastic
X
) i.e. in this sense the material is ‘more elastic’ in the plastic
region (in the presence of work hardening), than in the elastic region!
If the specimen is reloaded it will follow the reverse path and yielding will start at ~X.
Because of strain hardening* the yield strength of the specimen is higher.
The blue part of the curve is also called the ‘flow stress’
Variables in plastic deformation , , , T
In the tension experiment just described the temperature (T) is usually kept constant and
the sample is pulled (between two crossheads of a UTM) at a constant velocity. The
crosshead velocity can be converted to strain rate ( ) using the gauge length (L 0) of the
specimen. v / L0
At low temperatures (below the recrystallization temperature of the material, T < 0.4T m)
the material hardens on plastic deformation (YF in the - plot known as work
hardening or strain hardening). The net strain is an important parameter under such
circumstances and the material becomes a partial store of the deformation energy provided.
The energy is essentially stored in the form of dislocations and point defects.
If deformation is carried out at high temperatures (above the recrystallization temperature;
wherein, new strain free grains are continuously forming as the deformation proceeds),
strain rate becomes the important parameter instead of net strain.
plastic K plastic
n
Usually expressed as (for plastic)
,T
Deviations from this behaviour often observed (e.g. in Austenitic stainless steel) at low
strains (~10–3) and/or at high strains (~1.0). Other forms of the power law equation are also
considered in literature (e.g. y K plastic n ).
An ideal plastic material (without strain hardening) would begin to neck right at the onset
of yielding. At low temperatures (below recrystallization temperature- less than about
0.5Tm) strain hardening is very important to obtain good ductility. This can be understood
from the analysis of the results of the uniaxial tension test. During tensile deformation
instability in the form of necking localizes deformation to a small region (which now
experiences a triaxial state of stress). In the presence of strain hardening the neck portion
(which has been strained more) hardens and the deformation is spread to other regions,
thus increasing the ductility obtained.
For an experiment done in shear on single crystals the equivalent region to OY can further
be subdivided into:
True elastic strain (microscopic) till the true elastic limit (E)
Onset of microscopic plastic deformation above a stress of A.
For Mo a comparison of these quantities is as follows: E = 0.5 MPa, A = 5 MPa and
0 (macroscopic yield stress in shear) = 50 MPa.
Variables/parameters in mechanical testing
When true strain is less than 1, the smaller value of ‘n’ dominates over a larger value of ‘n’
ln
‘n’ and ‘K’ for selected materials n
ln ,T
Material n K (MPa)
Annealed Cu 0.54 320
ln
ln T
Funda Check What is the important of ‘m’ and ‘n’
We have seen that below recrystallization temperature ‘n’ is ‘the’ important parameter.
Above recrystallization temperature it is ‘m’ which is important.
We have also noted that it is necking which limits the ductility in uniaxial tension.
Necking implies that there is locally more deformation (strain) and the strain rate is also
higher locally.
Hence, if the ‘locally deformed’ material becomes harder (stronger) then the deformation
will ‘spread’ to other regions along the gauge length and we will obtain more ductility.
Hence having a higher value of ‘n’ or ‘m’ is beneficial for obtaining good ductility.
Plastic deformation by slip Click here to see overview of mechanisms/modes of plastic deformation
As we noted in the beginning of the chapter plastic deformation can occur by many
mechanisms SLIP is the most important of them. At low temperatures (especially in
BCC metals) twinning may also be come important.
At the fundamental level plastic deformation (in crystalline materials) by slip involves the
motion of dislocations on the slip plane finally leaving the crystal/grain* (creating a
step of Burgers vector).
Slip is caused by shear stresses (at the level of the slip plane). Hence, a purely hydrostatic
state of stress cannot cause slip (or twinning for that matter).
A slip system consists of a slip direction lying on a slip plane.
Under any given external loading conditions, slip will be initiated on a particular slip
system if the Resolved Shear Stress (RSS)** exceeds a critical value [the Critical Resolved
Shear Stress (CRSS)].
For slip to occur in polycrystalline materials, 5 independent slip systems are required.
Hence, materials which are ductile in single crystalline form, may not be ductile in
polycrystalline form. CCP crystals (Cu, Al, Au) have excellent ductility.
At higher temperatures more slip systems may become active and hence polycrystalline
materials which are brittle at low temperature, may become ductile at high temperature.
C
{111} ½<110> 12
Diamond cubic
More examples of slip systems
Cu (FCC)
{111} (a/2)< 1 10> 4 x 3 = 12
Fm 3m
{011} 6 x 2 = 12
W (BCC)
{112} (a/2)<11 1> 12 x 1 = 12
Im 3m
{123} 24 x 1 = 24
{0001} 1x3=3
Mg (HCP)
{10 10} (a/3)<1120> 3x1=3
P63/mmc
{10 11} 6x1=6
CsCl
{110} a<001> 6x1=6
Pm 3m
(100) 1x1=1
Polyethylene
{110} c<001> 2x1=2
Pnam
(010) 1x1=1
Critical Resolved Shear Stress (CRSS) What is the connection between Peierls stress and CRSS?
Force F
Stress
A A
Area 1D
Slip plane Slip direction
F Cos
normal
A / Cos
A’
A
A'
RSS Cos Cos Cos
CRSS
Yield strength of a single crystal y
Cos Cos
How does the motion of dislocations lead to a macroscopic shape change?
(From microscopic slip to macroscopic deformation a first feel!)
When one bents a rod of aluminium to a new shape, it involves processes occurring at
various lengthscales and understanding these is an arduous task.
However, at the fundamental level slip is at the heart of the whole process.
To understand ‘how slip can lead to shape change?’; we consider a square crystal
deformed to a rhombus (as Below).
Now visualize dislocations being punched in on successive planes moving and finally
leaving the crystal
This sequence of events finally leads to deformed shape which can be approximated to a
rhombus
Solid solution strengthening (by adding interstitial and substitutional alloying elements).
Cold Work increase point defect and dislocation density
(Cold work increases Yield stress but decreases the % elongation, i.e. ductility).
Decrease in grain size grain boundaries provide an impediment ot the motion of
dislocations (Hall-Petch hardening).
Precipitation/dispersion hardening introduce precipitates or inclusions in the path of
dislocations which impede the motion of dislocations.
Strengthening mechanisms
Precipitate
Solid solution & Forest dislocation Grain boundary
Dispersoid
Applied shear stress vs internal opposition
PN stress is the ‘bare minimum’ stress required for plastic deformation. Usually there will be
other sources of opposition/impediment to the motion of dislocations in the material. Some
of these include :
Stress fields of other dislocations
Stress fields from coherent/semicoherent precipitates
Stress fields from low angle grain boundaries
Grain boundaries
Effect of solute atoms and vacancies
Stacking Faults
Twin boundaries
Phonon drag
etc.
Some of these barriers (the short range obstacles) can be overcome by thermal activation
(while other cannot be- the long range obstacles).
These factors lead to the strengthening of the material.
Q
Ae kT
Q
d
Strain rate
dt
Al2O3
300 Si Covalent
18-8 SS
Ni-FCC
150 Ni
Cu-FCC
Cu
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6
RT is like HT and P-N T/Tm →
stress is easily overcome
What causes Strain hardening? → multiplication of dislocations
Strain hardening
Annealed material Stronger material
Cold work
dislocation ~ (10 10 )
6 9
dislocation ~ (1012 1014 )
→
on plastic deformation →
but observation is contrary to this
Dynamic recovery
1 1
[1 0 1] [0 11]
2 ( 1 11) 2 (100 )
1 1 1
[ 1 1 0] + [1 0 1] [0 11]
2 (111) 2 ( 1 11) 2 (100 )
[0 1 1]
Lomer-Cottrell barrier →
The red and green dislocations attract each other and move towards their line of intersection
They react as above to reduce their energy and produce the blue dislocation
The blue dislocation lies on the (100) plane which is not a close packed plane
→ hence immobile → acts like a barrier to the motion of other dislocations
Impediments (barriers) to dislocation motion
Grain boundary
Immobile (sessile) dislocations
► Lomer-Cottrell lock
► Frank partial dislocation
Twin boundary
Precipitates and inclusions
COLD WORK
► ↑ strength
► ↓ ductility
Grain size and strength Hall-Petch Relation
200 Sn (1.51)
Matrix: Cu (r = 1.28 Å)
Be (1.12)
150
8)
1.1 3) 5) Solute strengthening of Cu crystal
y (MPa) →
( . 4 . 2
Si l (1 Ni (
1 by solutes of different sizes
A
100
Zn (1.31)
50
(Values in parenthesis are atomic radius values in Å)
→
Solute atoms ↑ level of - curve
→
Often produce Yield Point Phenomenon
→
→
Relative strengthening effect of Interstitial and Substitutional atoms
Interstitial solute atoms have a non-spherical distortion field and can elastically interact
with both edge and screw dislocations. Hence they give a higher hardening effect (per unit
concentration) as compared to substitutional atoms which have (approximately) a
spherical distortion field.
Solute atoms
Substitutional Spherical
distortion
field Gsolute / 10
Elastic Interstitial → Edge and screw dl.
Substitutional → edge
Long range
Modulus
(T insensitive)
Long range order
Mechanisms of interaction of
Solute-dislocation interaction dislocations with solute atoms
Stacking fault
Short range
Electrical
(T sensitive)
Glide through the precipitate If the precipitate is coherent with the matrix
Dislocation
Get pinned by the precipitate
A complete list of factors giving rise to hardening due to precipitates/inclusions will be considered later
Dislocation Glide through the precipitate
Only if slip plane is continuous from the matrix through the precipitate
precipitate is coherent with the matrix.
Stress to move the dislocation through the precipitate is ~ that to move it in the
matrix (though it is usually higher as precipitates can be intermetallic compounds) .
Usually during precipitation the precipitate is coherent only when it is small and
becomes incoherent on growth.
Small Large
Growth
Growth
b Precipitate particle
b
If the particle is sheared, then how does the hardening effect come about?
We have seen that as the dislocation glides through the precipitate it is sheared.
If the precipitate is sheared, then how does it offer any resistance to the motion of the dislocation? I.e.
how can this lead to a hardening effect?
The hardening effect due to a precipitate comes about due to many factors (many of which are system
specific). The important ones are listed in the tree below.
When stress is increased beyond the yield stress the mechanism of deformation changes.
Till ‘Y’ in the s-e plot, bond elongation (elastic deformation) gives rise to the strain.
After ‘Y’, the shear stress resulting from the applied tensile force, tends to move
dislocations (and cause slip) rather than stretch bonds as this will happen at lower
stresses as compared to bond stretching (beyond ‘Y’).
If there are not dislocations (e.g. in a whisker) (and for now we ignore other mechanism of
deformation), the material will continue to load along the straight line OY till
dislocations nucleate in the crystal.
TWINNING