Designs of Road

DESIGN OF ROADS
Design Criteria / Standards

1.0 DESIGN STANDARDS
1.1 INTRODUCTION
◦ Road Classification is very important since the first
step in the design process is to define the function
that the road is to serve – whether as an arterial
road, collector or local street. We have to determine
the function of the road so that we can apply the
appropriate set of design criteria.
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1.2 DEFINITION
◦ Design Criteria/Standards are generally accepted
set of values considered reliable or authoritative
which is used as the basis for designs. Some
commonly accepted criteria/standards are
supported by research while others represent a
pooling of judgment of many design engineers.
Seldom however can they be considered as exact
beyond debate. Design Criteria/Standards are
minimum requirements which could either be a
minimum value, as in minimum radius or a
maximum value, as in maximum recommended
superelevation.

1.3 PURPOSE AND DEPARTURE FROM
STANDARDS
◦ The primary purpose of establishing the Design
Criteria/Standards is to provide consistency in the
designs. By adapting these Criteria/Standards and
avoiding abrupt changes in these standards, we would
be ensuring that every design element conform to the
driver’s expectations while using the road thereby
contributing to a smooth flowing and accident-free
facility.

 Design policies and standards generally represent minimum
requirements – caution should therefore be exercised when using
borderline values. Higher or optimum standards may be used within
reasonable economic limits. To ensure uniform practice, lower design
standards should not be used unless it has been reviewed by the
Bureau of Design and approved by the concerned DPWH Secretary.

1.4 SOURCES OF STANDARDS AND OTHER
PUBLICATIONS
◦ Introduction to the sources of the basic criteria and
other books would be one of the most important
benefits we can derive from this presentation. Some of
the more important reference materials are the
following:
 A Policy on Geometric Design of Rural Highways, AASHTO,
1965
 A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets,
AASHTO, 2001
 Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards, Volume II, DPWH
 Highway Engineering, Oglesby & Hicks, Wiley & Sons, 1982
 Highway Planning Manual, Volume II, DPWH, 1982
 DPWH Standard Specification, Volume II, 2004

2.0 BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
 The designer should always bear in mind these
following basic considerations.
◦ Functionality. The design must be simple yet functional in
respect to traffic volume, vehicle type and design speed
requirements.
◦ Consistency. The design must be consistent and must
avoid abrupt changes in design elements.
◦ Aesthetics. The design must be pleasing to the user and
to those living along it.
◦ Completeness. The design must be complete – ensure
effectiveness of the design by providing the necessary
road signs, pavement markings and other important road
appurtenances.
 The designer should always bear in mind these following
basic considerations. (continuation)
◦ Costs. The design must be economical – this pertain not only to construction
costs but to maintenance costs as well (consider life cycle costs).
◦ Safety. The design must be safe for driving and should ensure confidence for
motorists.

3.0 ELEMENTS OF DESIGN
 The volume of traffic, type of traffic and the required level of

service are the factors determining the number and width of lanes,
the width of shoulders and the design speed. All other design
elements are a consequence of the design speed.

The geometric parameters that contribute to the
attainment of a given design speed are the following:
 3.1 SIGHT DISTANCE

◦ Sight Distance is the distance along the roadway that an
object is continuously visible to the driver. This should be
considered in the preliminary stages of design when the
horizontal and vertical alignment could still be subject to
adjustments.

Two of the most common types
 3.1.1 Stopping or Non-Passing Sight Distance
◦ The design stopping sight distance is the minimum distance required for a
vehicle traveling at design speed to stop before reaching an object on its path.
It is the sum of the following:
 D1, the distance during perception and brake reaction
time, and
 D2, the braking distance on wet pavements.

 3.1.2 Passing Sight Distance (see Exhibit 3-4 for illustration)
◦ The design passing sight distance is the minimum distance
required to safely make a normal passing maneuver on 2-lane
highways at passing speeds common to nearly all drivers. It is
the sum of the following:
 d1, Initial maneuver distance. The distance traversed during
perception and brake reaction time and during the initial
acceleration to the point of encroachment on the left lane.
 d2, Distance while passing vehicle occupies the left lane.
 d3, Clearance Length. The distance between the passing vehicle at
the end of its maneuver and the opposing vehicle.
 d4, Distance traversed by the opposing vehicle.

3.1.3 Sight Distance Controls
◦ On crest vertical curves, the sight distance is limited by
the roadway surface. On horizontal curves, it is limited
by a lateral obstruction beyond the roadway, such as a
cut slope, clump of trees, bridge abutments, etc.
Design Controls:
Height of Eye = 1.07 m.
Height of Object = 0.15 m. (stopping)
Height of Object = 1.30 m. (stopping)

3.1.4 Measuring Sight Distances
◦ Sight Distance measurements is useful in determining
the portion of road where sight distance is restricted
(design speed cannot be met – has an effect on
capacity) and in determining no passing zones which
should serve as a guide when placing pavement
markings once the road is completed.

Steps in measuring horizontal sight distance:
◦ Locate the horizontal obstruction in the plan – cut slope
obstruction is shown in the plans by a line representing
the proposed excavation slope at a point about 0.60 m.
(for stopping sight distance) or 1.20 m. (for passing sight
distance) above the road surface.
◦ Place the edge of a straightedge tangent to this line.
◦ The intersection of the edge and the road centerline is
the measured sight distance.

Steps in measuring vertical sight distance:
1. Construct a transparent strip in the appropriate scale (same as

profile scale).
2. Place point A on the station where vertical sight distance is desired.
3. Pivot the strip about point A until the upper edge is tangent to the
profile.
4. The distance between point A and the station on the profile
intersected by the 0.15 m. line is the stopping sight distance.
5. The distance between point A and the station on the profile
intersected by the lower edge of the strip is the passing sight
distance.
 3.2HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
◦ The alignment of a road is a series of straight line called
tangents connected by curves. Normally, the largest
possible radius of curvature (flatter curves) should be
provided unless earthworks, R.O.W. constraints and
other critical conditions govern.

Two types of curves commonly used:
 3.2.1 Circular Curves

◦ Because of its perceived simplicity in calculations, circular/simple curves are
widely used locally. The main drawback in the use of circular curves is in the
development of superelevation especially in the critical borderline values of
design speed and degree of curve. For this reason, circular curves should be
used only when flatter curves are prevalent. Along tangents, there is no
centrifugal force but at the point of curvature, full centrifugal force develops
at once. The change from normal crown to full superelevation is therefore
effected partly on the tangent and partly on the curve. This could be
uncomfortable to the driver and to his passengers especially on sharper
curves at higher speeds.

 3.2.2 Circular with Transition
◦ Highways with volume of traffic that justify a higher
level of service should be designed with geometric
characteristics more appropriate to its importance. To
this end, the use of the “Euler” or Clothoid transition
curves positioned after the tangent and before the
circular curve was introduced. Clothoids are
recommended on all curves with superelevation.

The principal advantages of using transition curves
 Properly designed transition curves provide a natural easy-
to-follow path for drivers which minimize encroachment of
the opposite lane when entering or leaving a curve.
 The transition curve length provides a convenient mode of
effecting superelevation.
 The transition curve length provides a convenient mode of
effecting widening.
 Transition curves enhance the appearance of the highway –
noticeable breaks at the beginning and end of circular
curves are thus avoided.

• The general objection voiced against the use of transition curves owing
to its calculation being tedious and possibly “beyond” many location and
design engineers is negated by the use of convenient design tables and
the advent of computers. Perhaps the only constraint with use of
transition curves would be the possible R.O.W. problems – on already
existing alignments – that could be encountered with the insertion of
transition curves.

 3.2.3 General Controls for Horizontal Alignment
◦ Alignment should be directional as possible, but should be consistent with
topography.
◦ Flatter curves should be used as much as possible, with sharper curves used
only on critical situations.
◦ Consistent alignment should be observed. Avoid abrupt changes from
tangents to sharp curves.
◦ Avoid the presence of “kinks” in the alignment by using sufficiently longer
curves.
◦ Avoid abrupt reversal in alignment (it is difficult for drivers to keep to their
lane). Also, superelevation may not be effected adequately.
◦ Tangents are recommended on high, long fills.

 3.2.3 General Controls for Horizontal Alignment (continuation)
◦ When compound curves are necessary, R1 should not exceed 1.5 R2.
◦ Avoid broken back curves (drivers usually expect succeeding curves to be in
opposite direction).
◦ Horizontal alignment should be coordinated closely with profile.

 3.3 SUPERELEVATION
◦ Superelevation is the transversal inclination of the road
along the curve sections – also called banking of curves.
◦ When a vehicle travels on a curved section of the
roadway, the vehicle is forced radially outwards by the
centrifugal force. This force is counteracted by the side
friction developed between the tires and the road and
the superelevation.

 In the DPWH Design Guidelines, it was assumed that
the centrifugal force resulting from a speed equal to
¾ of the design speed is counteracted by the effects
of the superelevation (with the balance assumed to
be counteracted by the design friction). Consistent
with AASHTO policy, the DPWH Design Guidelines set
the generally desirable maximum superelevation rate
of 8% (or 0.80 meter per meter width of the
roadway). For road systems where superelevation is
a major design control, other limiting rates can be
applied.

 3.3.1 Formula
The required superelevation for various design speeds and
radius is given by the formula:
where:
e = superelevation in m/m
V = design speed in kph.
R = radius of curve in m.

 3.3.2 Superelevation Run-off
o Superelevation run-off is the length of the roadway
needed to accomplish the change in cross slope from
a normal crown to a fully superelevated section – for
practical purposes, the required length of spiral.
Regardless of road width and superelevation rate,
recommended minimum run-off lengths should be
between 30 to 75 m.

 Length of the superelevation run-off could be determined
using the formula:
where:
W = width of road in m
nc = normal crown slope in m/m
e = superelevation in m/m
s = relative slope between road edge & centerline

Maximum Relative Slope between
Design Speed (kph) Edge of Pavement and Centerline
(%)
30 0.75
40 0.70
50 0.65
60 0.60
70 0.55
80 0.50
90 0.45
100 0.40
Note: In some cases, especially on reverse curves, the values,

for s may exceeded, but seldom beyond 1%

3.3.3 Method of Attaining Superelevation
 The most common method of attaining superelevation
Is rotation about the centerline profile.
 On simple curves, 2/3 of the superelevation run-off is
placed on the tangent while remaining 1/3 is placed
on the curve - - the effect would be superelevating
when not yet needed (on tangents) and less applied
superelevation (from point of curvature) when there is
already full centrifugal force.
 On curves with transition, the superelevation run-off
is effected on the whole length of the spiral
(centrifugal force gradually developed along the curve
is properly counteracted by the gradual application of
superelevation).

3.3.3 Method of Attaining Superelevation (cont.)
 On compound curves, there should be a transition length
where the decrease (or increase) in superelevation, if any,
could be effected.
 On reverse curves, the point of reverse curvature has a flat
road surface with superelevation developed on the
respective curve.

 3.4 WIDENING
◦ Pavement widening on curves is the difference in
pavement width required on a curved and that used on
a tangent.
◦ On sharp curves, widening is provided to account for
such factors as:
1. the difficulty of some drivers in steering on the center of
their lane, and
2. the increased vehicle width because rear wheels
generally track inside front wheels.

 Exhibit 3-51 gives the recommended pavement
widening values depending on the degree of curve
and design speed, however for roads with significant
truck trailer traffic it would be best to recalculate
pavement widening values based on AASHTO
formulas. For simplicity and consistency, widening
should be applied with the same method of attaining
the superelevation.
 Refer to AASHTO Policy on Geometric Design of
Highways for discussions on minimum turning path
radius for trucks.

3.5 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
◦ Simplicity in use and its close approximation of the
necessary transition when entering and leaving a curve
are the reasons why parabolic curves are used to
connect tangents along the vertical alignment. Parabolic
curves may either be symmetrical or unsymmetrical –
the latter should be avoided when possible. Vertical
parabolic curves should provide adequate sight
distance, safety, comfort (change in direction should be
gradual), good drainage and pleasing appearance.

 3.5.1 Maximum Gradient
◦ Most passenger cars are readily negotiate grades as steep
as 7 to 8% without appreciable loss of speed. On
mountainous terrain, 12% is the recommended maximum
gradient.
 3.5.2 Minimum Gradient

◦ For economy of vehicle operation, grades should be as flat
as possible. Level grades should be used only on
adequately crowned (for lateral drainage) road sections on
high fills. A minimum of 0.35% gradient on high type
pavements and 0.50% gradient on through cut sections
should be provided to effect longitudinal drainage.

 3.5.3 Critical Length of Upgrade
◦ For a 20T truck, this critical length of upgrade will effect a
25 kph reduction in speed below the average running
speed. The following critical length of upgrade should be
used as a guide, particularly in providing motoring
information to drivers:
Critical Length of
Upgrade (%)
Upgrade (m)
3 540
4 340
5 240
6 200
7 170
8 150

 3.5.4 Design Control – Sight Distance
◦ The required length of crest vertical curves to satisfy the
requirements of minimum stopping sight distance,
comfort and appearance should not be shorter than:
where
L = minimum length of vertical curve, m
K = constant for varying design speed A =
algebraic difference in grades

 RECOMMENDED K VALUE:
Terrain FLAT ROLLING MOUNTAINOUS
Design Speed 70 kph 60 kph 40 kph
minimum K Value 10 15 25 12 30 10
desirable absolute desirable absolute desirable absolute
 The minimum requirement of vertical curve without considering K-value is 60 m.
 AASHTO observed that the minimum lengths for crest vertical curve appear to be
suitable for sag vertical curves; therefore minimum recommended lengths are
applicable in both situations. Lengths of sag vertical curves shorter than these
minimum may be justified for economic reasons in cases where an existing
element, such as structure not ready for replacement, controls the vertical profile.
 To provide for passing sight distance in the design of crest vertical curves is
impractical due to the resulting cost for crest cuts and the difficulty of fitting the
longer curves to the terrain. Ordinarily, passing sight distance can be provided only
on sections of road without crest vertical curves, or those having very small
algebraic difference in grades.

 3.5.5 Other General Controls for Vertical Alignment
 A smooth gradeline consistent with type of highway and

character of terrain is preferable over a gradeline with numerous
breaks and short tangent lengths.
 The “roller coaster” or “hidden-dip” type of profile should be
avoided.
 Avoid long upgrades, which on the opposite lane, may
undesirably result to high downgrade speed to trucks.
 Avoid broken back gradeline.
 On long upgrades, it is preferable to break the sustained grade
by introducing short intervals of lighter grade.

 (continuation)
 On intersections at end of upgrades, it is desirable to

reduce the grade trough intersection.
 Climbing lanes (extra lane) should be considered where
critical length of upgrade is exceeded particularly for higher
traffic roads.

 3.6 COMBINATION OF HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
◦ There should be coordination between horizontal and
vertical alignment – these should not be designed
independently. The reason why presentation of drawings is
such that the plan is shown on the upper portion while the
profile is shown at the lower part is to facilitate checking.
Always refer to the cross sections so that even at the early
stages of design, the designer can already visualize
locations of excessive cuts or fills and take note of other
design controls before making the decision regarding design
adjustments.

4.0 OTHER FACTORS AFFECTING
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
 4.1 RIGHT OF WAY

oFor national roads, minimum R.O.W. should be 30 m.
oFor multilane high capacity roads, the R.O.W. width

should be dictated by the required number of lanes
(including allowance for a wider highway section), the
median, the curb and sidewalk, ramps, etc.
oIn undeveloped areas, minimum R.O.W. should be 60m.

 (continuation)
◦ Where existing R.O.W. are widened through developed

places, it is best to do the widening on one side to minimize
property damage. Better design of existing alignment is
always preferable than the road being controlled by the
existing facility, however, overall economy of designs
should always be taken into consideration.
◦ The location of existing properties, especially fixed
structures should be indicated in the plans to guide the
designer in the proper choice of alignment.

 4.2 DRAINAGE
◦ Drainage should have adequate capacities and should be

so located to minimize damage to property, to prevent
saturation of the roadbed (always keep water out of the
road) and to avoid flooding.
◦ On curbed sections, inlet should be properly spaced for
quick draining.
◦ Whenever practicable, the full cross section should be
carried over culverts bridges – there should be no
reduction of carriageway and shoulder width.

 4.3 ROAD SIGN AND PAVEMENT MARKINGS
◦ Although safety and efficiency of operation depend much on the geometric
design, the road must also be provided with effective means of controlling,
warning and informing motorists.
Three general types of highway signs:

◦ Regulatory Signs – indicates the required method of traffic movement
◦ Warning signs – indicates hazardous conditions to drivers.
◦ Guide Signs – used to direct traffic along the road or towards a destination.

• Pavement markings, particularly the center line
markings are important elements that guide the
drivers especially at night. Caution should be exercised
when using the edge markings on 2-lane highways
since studies indicate that drivers tend to veer
towards the center on these roads – which could be
hazardous during higher speeds.

 4.4 EROSION CONTROL
◦ Generally could be effected with the use of flat side slopes,
slope roundings, properly designed drainage channels, the
use of lined ditches, introduction of interceptor ditches,
berms and by sodding of affected slopes.
 4.5 ROADSIDE TURNOUT AND REST AREAS
◦ These are desirable elements on heavily traveled road and
on those carrying recreation traffic. The design and location
of these areas depend much on the character and volume
of traffic, type of highway and adjacent land use.
 4.6 LIGHTING
◦ Lighting of rural highways is seldom justified except on
certain critical sections such as intersections, long bridges
and areas where roadside interference is a factor.
Consideration of the location of lighting poles should be
made a factor in design of the above road sections.
 4.7 UTILITIES
◦ Proper coordination with utility companies should be
made during the preliminary design stages so that
necessary adjustments in plans, with regard to placement
or relocation of utilities, could be effected.

5.0 CROSS SECTION
ELEMENTS
 5.1 PAVEMENT
◦ Relative to this topic, pavement is defined as the
running surface of the road excluding the shoulders.
Pavements may be classified as single lane, two-lane or
multilane. A traffic lane is the portion of pavement
allotted to a single line of vehicles.

 5.1.1 Width of 2-Lane Highways
◦ The type of traffic generally governs in the determination
of pavement width. Typical pavement width of 6.10 m. is
generally adopted, with pavement width of 6.70 m.
considered desirable. For roads with significant truck
traffic, pavement width of 7.30m. should be considered.
Pavement width in excess of 7.30 m. is not recommended
since drivers will attempt to travel 3 vehicles abreast on a
wide pavement.
 5.1.2 Surfacing
◦ Pavement surfacing is normally a function of the traffic
volume. Greater volume of traffic requires a better type of
pavement than less trafficke3d roads. Refer to the
minimum design standards (Annex 1.4.2) for the
recommended type of pavement surfacing.

 5.1.3 Cross Slope
Range in Rate of Cross

Surface Type
Slope (m/m)
High: AC, PCCP 0.01 to 0.02
Intermediate: AC, DBST 0.015 to 0.03
Low: Earth, Gravel 0.02 to 0.04

 5.2 SHOULDER
◦ Shoulder is the width of road from the edge of pavement
to the intersection of the shoulder and side slope planes.
Minimum shoulder width should be 1.0 m. with up to 2.5
m. recommended on high trafficked roads. Shoulder
should consist of materials wherein surface water can
drain over it or through it (water should not penetrate the
underlying layers through the shoulders). Shoulders
should also be stable enough to resist occasional passing
of traffic (especially on curves) and loads due to stalled
vehicles. Desirably, the color and texture of shoulder
surface should contrast the pavement (helps the driver in
defining the travelled way).

 5.3 SIDEWALK
◦ There is little or no provision of sidewalks on rural
highways but this should be considered when the road
passes through points of community development. When
sidewalks are to be provided, minimum width should be
1.5 m. and this should be set back at least 1.0 m from the
curb. When setback cannot be sufficiently provided, the
sidewalk width should be increased.
 5.4 GUARDRAILS
◦ Corrugated metal beam guardrails spaced at 3.81 m. fixed
to concrete posts are normally provided at points of
hazards, particularly at high fills (>5.0 m.) as a guide in
defining the roadway. These are designed to resist impact
by deflecting the vehicle so that it continues to move at a
reduced velocity along the guardrail.

5.5 MEDIANS
◦ Medians act as separator between opposing traffic.
These are normally provided on roads designed for
higher speeds. Minimum median width should be
1.22 m. Medians with width of 4.5 m. could be
constructed without curbs.

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DESIGN OF ROADS

Design Criteria / Standards

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 The volume of traffic, type of traffic and the required level of

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 3.1 SIGHT DISTANCE

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1. Construct a transparent strip in the appropriate scale (same as

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 3.2.1 Circular Curves

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Note: In some cases, especially on reverse curves, the values,

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 3.5.2 Minimum Gradient

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 The minimum requirement of vertical curve without considering K-value is 60 m.

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 A smooth gradeline consistent with type of highway and

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 On intersections at end of upgrades, it is desirable to

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 4.1 RIGHT OF WAY

oFor multilane high capacity roads, the R.O.W. width

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◦ Where existing R.O.W. are widened through developed

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◦ Drainage should have adequate capacities and should be

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Three general types of highway signs:

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