Reservoir considerations

Chracteristics of reservoir rocks

Porosity:

Porosity reflects the nonsolid part of rock; it is

expressed in percentage of a given volume of the

rock being considered. To arrive at the percent of

porosity, divide the volume of the nonsolid part of

the rock( part filled by fluids ) by the bulk volume.

The porosity developed during the
original sedimentation process by which
the rock was formed is referred to as
primary porosity; formation having this
properties are usually granular, such as
sand.
Secondary porosity results from processes
other than primary compaction; and
cementation. Secondary porosity is
commonly found in limestone or dolomite
that has been dissolved by ground waters to
create vugs or caverns.
Dolomitization is the process of the
shrinking of solid volume in the rock as
limestone transforms to dolomite.
Dolomitization and fracturing create
secondary porosity.
Porosity values can be understood by
comparing sand grains to marbles stacked on
top of each other. Assume some marbles, all
the same size, are stacked on top of each
other in columns. When calculated, there will
be a porosity of 47.6 %, which is the
maximum theoretical porosity for compacted
formations.
Spherical sand grains, all identical in size
( but only 1/ 10 the size of the marbles),
stacked on top of each other in columns
will show the same porosity, 47.6%.
If the same marbles are stacked in the closest
arrangement possible wherein the upper
marble sits in the valley between the lower
marbles, the porosity is reduced to 25.9
percent.
As long as all the marbles are of the same
size or all the sand grains are of the same
size and shape, increasing or decreasing
the size of all objects concerned will not
change porosity.
Although 47.6 percent is the highest porosity
normally expected, a more probable porosity
would be in the mid-twenties. In practice, porosity
is rarely greater than 40 percent. Nonspherical
grains, which fit together better, reduce porosity,
and a distribution of grain sizes further reduces
porosity since the smaller grains fit in between the
larger ones.
As might be expected, the deeper, older
formations have a lower porosity because of the
overburden ( the strata of rock that lie above the
reservoir formation), the time stresses on the
rock, and the cementation. Porosity varies with
the type of formation as well as with depth.
In granular systems, the normal range of
porosity is from 10 to 35 % with the total
actual range varying from 3 to 40 %.
Shales have a lower porosity than sands
because of the plastic nature of shales, which
causes them to compress more easily.
However, shales and sand will follow the same
general porosity depth trend.
As an example, in a mud from the recent epoch,
the porosity measures about 40 percent and
decreases rapidly with depth and overburden to
less than 5 % at about 10,000 ft. This trend is
typical of Tertiary shales, with the older shales
being more compacted and lower in porosity.
The basic trend of porosity versus depth is not
as noticeable in carbonate rocks. Since they
have a plastic nature, they compress
considerably more than sand.
Saturation

The volume of any fluid relative to the total

amount of pore space is the percent of saturation.
For example, a water saturation of 10 % means
that 1 / 10 of the pore space is filled with water.
Recovery efficiency is important since this factor
determines profitability. Typically, the recovery
factor, as determined by experience, will be in
the 20 to 50 %.
 Resistivity and rock properties

Resistivity in well logging refers to the property

of a formation material that offers opposition to
an electrical flow through the material. Since
most earth solids are nonconductive when
completely dry, the amount of water and the
quality and quantity of other substances in the
water determine formation resistivity.
Hydrocarbons are nonconductive;
consequently, the presence of hydrocarbons
increases resistivity. Resistivity therefore
becomes another formation property ( like
porosity, permeability, and saturation) that
helps determine formation composition.
The resistivity of a substance is the measurement
of its resistance to the flow of an electrical
current; it is measured between opposite faces of
a unit cube of that substance at a specified
temperature.
Ohm’s law is used in this process. Ohm’s law
describes the behavior of electrical flow
through a conductor.

R=E/I

Where R = resistance
E = volts, and
I = current.
Since resistivity is a measurement of the
resistance of a given volume of material.

Ro = resistivity ( ohm-meters )
R = resistance (ohms )
A = cross sectional area ( square meters ) ,
and
L = length of material ( meters ).
Water conducts electrical current; rock grains and
hydrocarbons are insulators. Consequently, the
resistivity of any formation is a function of both
the water in that formation and the resistivity of
the water it self.
Doubling the cross-sectional area reduces the
flow of electrical current to one-half.
Resistivity varies in brine solutions with
different temperature ranges and differing
salinity concentrations. As the salinity of the
water increases, its resistivity decreases.
As temperature increases, resistivity
decreases. If sand grains are added to this
container of water, the amount of water is
reduced. Resistivity is increased. Porosity,
permeability, and saturation are factors that
determine the presence of and the amount of
water.
When an electric current passes through a
container of water, the resistivity offered
by this container of water is directly
dependent upon the amount of water in
the container and the specific resistivity
of this water.
As more sand or rock is added, more water
is displaced and resistivity is further
increased. Low porosity formation have a
higher resistivity than higher-porosity
formations if both contain water having the
same resistivity.
Since oil is a non conductor of electricity, an
increase in oil will increase resistivity. Both
oil and low porosity increase the resistivity
of a formation. Therefore porosity must be
evaluated in order to determine if the
formation is oil productive.
The basic formula for evaluating the quantity
of hydrocarbons in a formations is Archie’s
equation. There are a number of variations of
Archie’s equation, depending upon its
specific use.

Sw2 = a Rw / ϕm Rt
Where
Sw = water saturation of the formation,
Rw = formation water resistivity
Rt = true resistivity of the formation,
φ = porosity
a = a constant, and
m = a cementation exponent.
When fluids of different salinities are in contact, a
very small electrical current passes from the low
salinity fluid to the high salinity fluid. For this
reason, when filtrates ( the free fluid ) from fresh
water drilling mud invade a permeable formation,
an electrical charge flows from the drilling mud to
the saline water in the formation. The current then
flows to an impermeable formation such as shale.
 • Well logging - lowering electrical and gas
sensors into the hole to take measurements
of the rock formations there
• Drill-stem testing - lowering a device into
the hole to measure the pressures, which
will reveal whether reservoir rock has been
reached
• Core samples - taking samples of rock to
look for characteristics of reservoir rock
Gamma ray log

An instrument for determining gamma ray emission

measures the natural radiation of sedimentary rocks.

Some rocks are naturally radioactive because of the

unstable elements they contain. The significant

radioactive isotopes found in nature are the uranium-

radium series, thorium series, and radio potassium.

These heavy elements contribute a major portion
of the natural radiation observed in sedimentary
rocks. Each of these elements naturally emits
gamma rays, which are distinctive in both number
and energy. This energy is measured in million
electron volts ( mev ) and recorded on the log in
standard API gamma-ray units. Standard API units
are established in the API tests pits.
The gamma ray log is run as a correlation
curve with the neutron log, acoustic log,
density log, and guard electrode log. It can be
run in cased boreholes to correlate cased hole
logs with open-hole logs. This curve is
recorded in the left track of the log. Shale and
clean formation points are marked on the log.
 Uses for the gamma ray log include

identifying lithology;

defining bed thickness;

correcting other logs for shaliness, thus

serving as an index to permeability in shaly
formations;
detecting and evaluating radioactive minerals
such as potash or uranium ore;
delineating nonradioactive minerals, including
coal beds; and
serving as a useful tool in workover
information
Density log

The density log is a special type of radioactive

log that measures formation bulk density in
open-hole logging. It responds primarily to the
variations in specific gravity of the formations.
The measurement of bulk density is
a combination of the density of the rock
matrix, the quantity of pore space, and the
fluids filling the pore space. By assuming an
average density for the rock matrix and the
fluids filling the pore space, porosity may be
determined.
The density logging device is held against one side
of the borehole by a spring arrangement to
ensure close proximity to the formations. A
gamma ray source directs parallel gamma rays
into the rock. At a fixed distance from the source,
a counting system detects the changes in the
intensity of the gamma ray
beam resulting from changes in mud cake and
formation density. Two counting rate detectors
are used in the instrument. A short-spaced
detector, which primarily measures the changes
in mud, mud cake, and borehole size, corrects
the longer spaced measurement for these
effects. A corrected linear bulk density curve is
recorded in grams per cubic centimetre.
The density log is heavily shielded except for the
window on the side adjacent to the formations. In
this way, the gamma radiation that reaches the
detector is effectively limited to that which
penetrates into the rock and is then scattered
back in the direction of the detector. Since the
absorption and scattering of gamma radiation
depends largely upon the amount of matter
and, consequently, the electrons in its path, the
density logging device will respond according to
the variation of specific gravity in the rocks. The
density log is recognized as an excellent device
for measuring porosity, particularly for shaly
sand. It is referred to as a gamma-gamma density
log, formation density log or Density log.
Most density logging devices record
simultaneously a gamma ray log, density log, and
calliper log; thus, they are sometimes called GDC
surveys. Using the appropriate grain density and
log measurement of formation bulk density,
porosity is determined. A fluid density of 1.0
gram per cubic centimetre ( g/ cc ) is generally
used except in zones known to contain gas.
The density log is most commonly used for
determination of the porosity of formations,
identifications of minerals in evaporate
deposits, detection of gas, determination of
hydrocarbon density, evaluation of shaly sand
and complex lithologies, and determination of
oil-shale yield.
Acoustic log

The acoustic ( or sonic ) log, first recognized in 1954 as

a tool for measuring porosity, compares depth to the

time it takes for a sonic impulse to travel through a

given length of formation. The rate of travel of the

sound wave through a rock depends on the

composition of the formation and the fluids it contains.

Since the type of formation can be
determined by the other logs and because
sonic transit time varies with relative amounts
of rock and fluid, porosity can usually be
determined.
Measurement of the time required for the
formation to transmit the acoustic wave
provides a means to estimate formation
porosity. The travel time in the formation is
affected by the lithology and compaction of
the formation, the pore space, and the fluids
contained in the pore space.
By assuming the travel time of the formation
matrix and fluids, porosity may be
determined. An average value for pore fluids is
generally assumed. If gas occupies a portion of
the pore space, porosity values will be high.
Travel time through unconsolidated
formations must be corrected for lack of
compaction. Unconsolidated formations are
determined by the travel time in the adjacent
shale. When the time for the shale exceeds
100 microseconds per foot, the shale is
considered to be unconsolidated.
In addition to measurement of porosity, the
acoustic log is used for-
1. correlation with other logs,

2. location of bed boundaries, and

3.location of oil and gas interfaces.
The acoustic log is used to measure travel time
through a limestone formation. Reading a travel
time of 64 microseconds per foot at interval A
and using an average matrix velocity of 21,600
feet per second, a porosity of 12 % is determined.
Directional log
The directional log is a record of hole drift ( the
deviation of the wellbore from vertical ) and the
direction of the drift. The necessity of a vertical hole was
recognized many years ago; so instruments were
developed to determine whether or not a hole was
vertical. The desire to know the location of the bottom
of the hole was responsible for the development of
directional survey devices.
 A variety of instruments are used: drift

indicators, single-shot surveys, multiple-shot

surveys, and continuous surveys. Drift

indicator readings are not really directional

logs but are simply observations of hole angle

compared to a vertical. They are taken at

intervals as a well is drilled.

Most drifts indicators utilize a plumb bob. A

marker or stylus is actuated by a timing device

to obtain a reading on an angle-measuring

chart when the instrument is allowed to come

to rest. Most of these indicator readings do

not show bottom-hole location, only its

deviation from vertical.

A single-shot directional survey instrument is

similar to a drift indicator, except that it

includes a compass to obtain a directional

reading simultaneously with the drift

indication. The low side of the hole will be

opposite the direction of hole deviation.

Usually, directional logs are computed by

calculating the horizontal footage and vertical

footage for each intervals. Another type of

instrument uses a gyrocompass instead of a

magnetic device; unlike magnetic instruments,

it can be employed inside casing.

The true vertical depth ( TVD ) is determined

by adding up the vertical instruments using

the proper drift angle. The bottom hole

location is determined by plotting the

horizontal increments using the proper

direction of drift.
 Directional logs are used-

1. to maintain a vertical borehole;

2. to locate the bottom of the hole in case of drift in

drilling; and

3. to ensure that the producing formation is

encountered on the proper lease rather than on a
neighbouring lease when drilling is done near the
lease line.

*****************
 Finding oil
Modern oil geologists also examine surface rocks and
terrain, with the additional help of satellite images.
Variety of other methods are used to find oil –

1. Sensitive gravity meters measures tiny changes in the

Earth's gravitational field that could indicate flowing
oil.
2. Sensitive magnetometers to measure tiny changes in the
Earth's magnetic field caused by flowing oil.
3. Sensitive electronic noses called sniffers
detect the smell of hydrocarbons.

4. The most commonly, used method is

seismology - creating shock waves that pass
through hidden rock layers and interpreting
the waves that are reflected back to the
surface.
 Photo courtesy Institute of Petroleum
Searching for oil over water using seismology
 In seismic surveys, a shock wave is
created by the following:

• Compressed-air gun - shoots pulses of air into the

water (for exploration over water)

• Thumper truck - slams heavy plates into the ground

(for exploration over land)

• Explosives - drilled into the ground (for exploration

over land) or thrown overboard (for exploration over
water), and detonated
The shock waves reflect at different speeds
depending upon the type or density of rock
layers through which they must pass.

The reflections of the shock waves are

detected by sensitive microphones or
vibration detectors -- hydrophones over
water, seismometers over land.

The readings are interpreted by seismologists

for signs of oil and gas traps.
Although modern oil-exploration methods are
better than previous ones, they still may have
only a 10-percent success rate for finding new
oil fields.

Once a prospective oil strike is found, the

location is marked by GPS coordinates on land
or by marker buoys on water.