SIMULTANEOUS HEAT

AND MASS TRANSFER

Humidification and Dehumidification
Operations
HUMIDIFICATION OPERATIONS
• Humidification and dehumidification involve the transfer of
material between a pure liquid phase and a fixed gas
phase.
• These operations are somewhat simpler than those for
absorption and stripping, for when the liquid contains only
one component. There are no concentration gradients and
no resistance to transfer in the liquid phase.
• On the other hand, both heat transfer and mass transfer
are important and influence one another.
 FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS, FORMULATIONS
AND APPLICATIONS
• In the following definitions, a basis of a unit mass of vapor-free
gas is used.
• In the gas phase the vapor will be referred to as component A
and the fixed gas as component B.
• Because the properties of a gas-vapor mixture vary with total
pressure, the pressure must be fixed.
• If not specified, a total pressure of 1 atmosphere is assumed.
• Also, it is assumed that mixtures of gas and vapor follow the
ideal gas laws.
 FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS, FORMULATIONS
AND APPLICATIONS
•Humidity:H
  is the mass of vapor carried by a unit mass of vapor-
free gas. So defined, humidity depends only on the partial
pressure of the vapor in the mixture when the total pressure is
fixed. If the partial pressure of the vapor is pAatm, the molal ratio
of vapor to gas at 1 atm is pA/(1 - pA). The humidity is therefore
H =
Where MA and MB are the molecular weights of components A and
B, respectively.
The humidity is related to mole fraction in the gas phase by the
equation
y=

Since H /MAis usually small compared with 1/MB, y may often be

considered to be directly proportional to H .
 FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS, FORMULATIONS
AND APPLICATIONS
•Saturated
  Gas: is gas in which the vapor is in equilibrium with the
liquid at the gas temperature. The partial pressure of vapor in
saturated gas equals the vapor pressure of the liquid at the gas
temperature. If Hs is the saturation humidity and P/A the vapor
pressure of the liquid,
Hs =
Relative Humidity:H R is defined as the ratio of the partial
pressure of the vapor to the vapor pressure of the liquid at the gas
temperature. It is usually expressed on a percentage basis, so
100 percent humidity means saturated gas and 0 percent humidity
means vapor-free gas. By definition
HR=
 FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS, FORMULATIONS
AND APPLICATIONS
•Percentage
  Humidity:H A is the ratio of the actual humidity H to
the saturation humidity Hs at the gas temperature, also on a
percentage basis, or
HA = H
At all humidities other than 0 or 100 percent, the percentage
humidity is less than the relative humidity.
Humid Heat:cs is the heat energy necessary to increase the
temperature of 1 g or 1 lb of gas plus whatever vapor it may
contain by 1oC or 1oF. Thus
cs = cpB + cpAH
where cpB and cpA are the specific heats of gas and vapor,
respectively.
 FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS, FORMULATIONS
AND APPLICATIONS
•Humid
  Volume:vHis the total volume of a unit mass of vapor-free
gas plus whatever vapor it may contain at 1 atm and the gas
temperature. From the gas laws, vH in fps units is related to
humidity and temperature by the equation
vH (here H = humidity)
where T is the absolute temperature in degrees Rankine. In SI
units the equation is
vH (here H = humidity)

where vH is in cubic meters per gram and T is in Kelvins.

Saturated Volume: For vapor-free gas H = 0, and vH is the
specific volume of the fixed gas. For saturated gas H = H s, and
vHbecomes the saturated volume.
 FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS, FORMULATIONS
AND APPLICATIONS
Dew Point: is the temperature to which a vapor-gas mixture must be
cooled (at constant humidity) to become saturated. The dew point of
a saturated gas phase equals the gas temperature.
Total Enthalpy: Hy is the enthalpy of a unit mass of gas plus
whatever vapor it may contain. To calculate Hy, two reference states
must be chosen, one for gas and one for vapor. Let T 0 be the datum
temperature chosen for both components, and base the enthalpy of
component A on liquid A at T0. Let the temperature of the gas be T
and the humidity H. The total enthalpy is the sum of three items; the
sensible heat of the vapor, the latent heat of the liquid at T 0, and the
sensible heat of the vapor-free gas. Then
Hy = cPB (T - T0) + H λ0 + CPA H (T - T0)
where λ0 is the latent heat of the liquid at T 0. By the definition of humid
heat the above equation can be re-written as
Hy = cs (T - T0) + H λ0
 PHASE EQUILIBRIA
•  In humidification and dehumidification operations, the liquid
phase is a single pure component.
• The equilibrium partial pressure of solute in the gas phase is
therefore a unique function of temperature when the total
pressure on the system is held constant.
• Also, at moderate pressures the equilibrium partial pressure is
almost independent of total pressure and is virtually equal to the
vapor pressure of the liquid.
• By Dalton’s law the equilibrium partial pressure may be
converted to the equilibrium mole fraction ye in the gas phase.
• Since the liquid is pure , xe is always unity.
• The equilibrium mole fraction ye is related to the saturation
humidity by the equation; ye=
 PHASE EQUILIBRIA
• Equilibrium data are often presented as plots of ye vs.
temperature at a given
total pressure.
• Plot for air-water system
at 1 atm. is shown in the
figure.
 ADIABATIC SATURATOR
• Water is often sprayed into a stream of gas in a pipe or spray
chamber to bring the gas to saturation.
• The pipe or chamber is insulated so that the process is adiabatic.
• The gas, with an initial humidity H and temperature T, is cooled
and humidified.
• If not all the water evaporates and there is sufficient time for the
gas to come to equilibrium with the water, the exit temperature of
the gas is called the adiabatic saturation temperature, Ts.
• The remaining liquid is also at Ts and can be recirculated to the
spray nozzles.
• The value of Ts depends on the temperature and initial humidity
of the air and to a minor extent on the initial water temperature.
• To simplify the analysis, the water is often assumed to enter at Ts.
 ADIABATIC SATURATOR
•  An enthalpy balance can be written over this process.
• Pump work is neglected, and the enthalpy balance is based on
temperature Ts as a datum.
• Then the enthalpy of the makeup liquid is zero, and the total
enthalpy of the entering gas equals that of the leaving gas.
• Since the latter is at datum temperature, its enthalpy is simply
Hsλs.
• where Hs is the saturation humidity and λs is the latent heat, both
at Ts.
• The total enthalpy of the entering gas is Hy = cs(T - T0) + H λ0
• Therefor by enthalpy balance:cs(T - T0) + H λ0= H sλs or
(H is humidity)
Similar heat balance is used for gases other than air.
 ADIABATIC SATURATOR
Example 23.1: Flue gas at 320oF and 1 atm is to be cooled by a
water spray. The gas contains 14 percent CO2, 7 percent H2O, 3
percent O2, and 76 percent N2.
a) Calculate the adiabatic saturation temperature it the water
spray enters at 80oF.
b) Repeat for water entering at Ts.
Solution:
c) Basis: 100 mol of gas.
Guess that Ts is about
120oF and evaluate the
molar heat capacity Cp for
each gas at (320 + 120)/2
= 220oF.
 ADIABATIC SATURATOR
Make a heat balance for z moles of water evaporated:
Σ n CP (T - Ts) = z λs + 18 z(120 - 80)
= z (λs + 720)
At 120oF, from Appendix 7, λs = 1025.8 x 18 = 18464 Btu/lb mol
Then 744.75 (320 – 120) = z(18464 +720) = 19184z
z = 7.76
Total moles of water in exit gas: 7 + 7.76 = 14.76
Partial pressure of water in exit gas:
PH2O = (14.76/107.76) x 760 = 104.1 mm Hg
But at 120oF, P΄H2O = 87.5 mm Hg (Appendix 7).
Saturation temperature Ts must be greater than 120oF.
Try Ts = 126oF, then
P΄H2O = 103.2 mm Hg and λs = 1022.3 x 18 = 18401 Btu/lbmol.
Neglecting any changes in Cp:
744.75 (320 – 126) = z [18401 + 18(126 – 80)] = 19229 z
z = 7.51
 ADIABATIC SATURATOR
Total moles of water = 7 + 7.51 = 14.51
PH2O = (14.51/107.51) x 760 = 102.6 mm Hg
This is close enough to the value of P΄H2O, hence Ts = 126oF.
b) The last term of the heat balance is dropped it Tin = Ts.
For Ts = 126oF; 744.75 ( 320 – 126) = z (18401)
z = 7.85
PH2O = (14.85/107.85) x 760 = 104.6 mm Hg
This is higher than the vapor pressure of water at 126oF, 103.2 mm Hg,
and Ts >126oF. Try 127oF, for which P΄H2O = 106.0 mm Hg and λs =
1021.8 x 18 = 18391 Btu /lbmol
Z = [744.75(320 – 127)]/ 18391 = 7,82
PH2O = (14.82/107.82) x 760 = 104.5 mm Hg
Thus 127oF is too high and 126oF is too low. Hence Ts = 126.5oF approx
Note: changing the inlet temperature of the water has a very small
effect on the adiabatic saturation temperature;
 HUMIDITY CHARTS
• A convenient diagram showing the properties of mixtures of a
permanent gas and a condensable vapor is the humidity chart.
• A chart for mixtures of air and water at 1atm is shown in figure.
• The figure is based on Grosvenor Chart.
HUMIDITY CHARTS
 USE OF HUMIDITY CHARTS

VH = Specific volume + % Humidity(Saturated vol. – Specific vol.)

 METHODS OF INCREASING HUMIDITY
• Two methods of changing the humidity and temperature of a gas
from A(Ɵ1, H1) to B(Ɵ2, H2) may be traced on the humidity chart
as shown in Figure.
• The first method consists of saturating the air by water artificially
maintained at the dew point of air of humidity H2 (line AC) and
then heating at constant humidity to Ɵ2 (line CB).
• In the second method, the air is heated (line AD) so that its
adiabatic saturation temperature corresponds with the dew point
of air of humidity H2. It is then saturated by water at the adiabatic
saturation temperature
(line DC) and heated at
constant humidity to Ɵ2
(line CB).
 METHODS OF INCREASING HUMIDITY
• In this second method preliminary heating is carried out on the
air, but the water temperature automatically adjusts itself to the
required value.
• Since complete humidification is not always attained, an
allowance must be made when designing air humidification
cycles. For example, if only 95 per cent saturation is attained the
adiabatic cooling line should be followed only to the point
corresponding to that degree of saturation, and therefore the
gas must be heated to
a slightly higher
temperature before
adiabatic cooling is
commenced.
 METHODS OF INCREASING HUMIDITY
Example 13.7 Air at 300 K and 20 per cent humidity is to be
heated in two stages with intermediate saturation with water to 90
per cent humidity so that the final stream is at 320 K and 20 per
cent humidity. What is the humidity of the exit stream and the
conditions at the end of each stage?
Solution From the psychometric chart shown in figure.
At Ɵ1 = 300 K and 20 per cent humidity: H1 = 0.0045 kg/kg,
and
at Ɵ2 = 320 K and 20 per cent humidity: H2 = 0.0140 kg/kg
When H2 = 0.0140 kg/kg, air is saturated at 292 K and has a
humidity of 90 per cent at 293 K.
The adiabatic cooling line corresponding to 293K intersects with H
=0.0045kg/kg at a temperature,=318K.
 METHODS OF INCREASING HUMIDITY
• Thus the stages are:
i. Heat the air at H = 0.0045 from 300 to 318 K.
ii. Saturate with water at an adiabatic saturation temperature of
293 K until 90 per cent humidity is attained. At the end of this
stage: H = 0.0140 kg/kg and Ɵ = 294.5 K
iii. Heat the saturated air at H = 0.0140 kg/kg from 294.5 to 320 K
HUMIDITY CHARTS FOR SYSTEMS OTHER
THAN AIR-WATER
• A humidity chart may constructed for any system at any desired
total pressure.
• The data required are the vapor pressure and latent heat of
vaporization of the condensable component as a function of
temperature, the specific heats of pure gas and vapor, and the
molecular weights of both components.
• If a chart on a mole basis is desired, all equations can easily be
modified to the use of molal units.
• If a chart at a pressure other than 1 atm is wanted, obvious
modifications in the above equations may be made.
DRY BULB AND WET BULB TEMPERATURE
• Ambient temperature is measured by a dry bulb thermometer.
• The wet-bulb temperature is the steady-state, non-equilibrium
temperature reached by a small mass of liquid immersed under
adiabatic conditions in a continuous stream of gas.
• The mass of the liquid is so small in comparison with the gas
phase that there is only a negligible change in the properties of
the gas, and the effect of the process is confined to the liquid.
• The equipment for wet-bulb temperature measurement consists
of a thermometer, or an equivalent temperature-measuring
device such as thermocouple, is covered by wick, which is
saturated with pure liquid and immersed in a stream of gas
having a definite temperature T and humidity H..
• Assume that initially the temperature of the liquid is about that of
the gas.
• Since the gas is not saturated, liquid evaporates, and because
the process is adiabatic, the latent heat is supplied at first by
cooling the liquid.
 DRY BULB AND WET BULB TEMPERATURE
• As the temperature of the liquid decreases below that of the gas,
sensible heat is transferred to the liquid.
• Ultimately a steady state is
reached at such a liquid
temperature that the heat
needed to evaporated the liquid
and heat the vapor to gas
temperature is exactly balanced
by the sensible heat flowing
from the gas to the liquid.
• This is the steady-state
temperature called the
wet-bulb temperature, Tw.
• It is a function of both T and H.
 DRY BULB AND WET BULB TEMPERATURE
• Precaution to measure wet-bulb temperatures are:
i. The wick must be completely wet so no dry areas of the wick
are in contact with the gas.
ii. The velocity of the gas should be large enough to ensure that
the rate of heat flow by radiation from warmer surroundings to
the bulb is negligible as compare to the rate of sensible heat
flow by conduction and convection from the gas to the bulb.
iii. If makeup liquid is supplied to the bulb, it should be at the wet-
bulb temperature.
• When these precautions are taken, the wet-bulb temperature is
independent of gas velocity over a wide range of flow rates.
• For air-water system, wet-bulb temperature is nearly equal to
adiabatic saturation temperature. But this is not true for other.
• The wet-bulb temperature differs fundamentally from the
adiabatic saturation temperature. The temperature and humidity
of the gas vary during adiabatic saturation, and the end point is
a true equilibrium rather than a dynamic steady state.
 THEORY OF WET BULB TEMPERATURE
• At the wet-bulb temperature the rate of heat transfer from the
gas to the liquid may be equated to the product of the rate of
vaporization and the sum of the latent heat of evaporation and
the sensible heat of the vapor. Since radiation may be neglected,
this balance may be written
q = MANA[λw+ cpA(T – Tw)]
Where q = rate of sensible heat transfer to liquid
NA = molal rate of vaporization
λw = latent heat of liquid at wet-bulb temperature Tw
• The rate of heat transfer may be expressed in terms of the area,
the temperature drop, and the heat-transfer coefficient in the
usual way, or q = hy(T – Ti)A
Where hy = heat-transfer coefficient between gas and surface of
liquid
Ti = temperature at interface
A = surface area of liquid
 THEORY OF WET BULB TEMPERATURE
•  The rate of mass transfer may be expressed in terms of the
mass-transfer coefficient, the area and the driving force in mole
fraction of vapor, or NA = (yi – y)A
Where NA = molal rate of transfer of vapor
yi = mole fraction of vapor at interface
y = mole fraction of vapor in air stream
ky = mass-transfer coefficient, mole per unit area per unit mole
fraction
(1 – y)L = one way diffusion factor
• If the wick is completely wet and no dry spots show, the entire
area of the wick is available for both heat and mass transfer and
the areas in the heat and mass transfer equations are equal.
• Since the temperature of the liquid is constant, no temperature
gradients are necessary in the liquid to act as driving forces for
heat transfer within the liquid, the surface temperature Ti of the
liquid is same as interior Tw.
 THEORY OF WET BULB TEMPERATURE
•  Since the liquid is pure, no concentration gradient exist, and
granting interfacial equilibrium, yi is the mole fraction of vapor in
saturated gas at temperature Tw.
• It is convenient to replace the mole-fraction terms in mass
transfer equation by humidities noting that yi corresponds to Hw,
the saturation humidity at the wet-bulb temperature. By
comparing with the heat transfer equation we will get,

hy(T –Tw) = [ - ](λ

w + cpA(T – Tw) )
• Above equation may be simplified without serious error in the
usual range of temperature and humidities as follows:
1) The factore (1 - y)L is nearly unity and can be ommited.
2) The sensible heat item cpA(T – Tw) is small in comparison with
λw and can be neglected.
3) The terms Hw/MA&H /MA are small in comparison with 1/MB and
 THEORY OF WET BULB TEMPERATURE
•  With these simplifications we get hy(T – Tw) = Mwkyλw(Hw – H )
or
• For a givent wet-bulb temperature, both and Hw are fixed.
• The relation between H and T then depends on the ratio hy/ky.
• The close analogy between mass transfer and heat transfer
provides considerable information on the magnitude of this ratio
and the factors that affect it.
• Heat transfer by conduction and convection between a stream of
fluid and a solid or liquid boundary depends on the Reynolds
number DG/μ and the Prandtl number cPμ/k.
• Also the mass transfer coefficient depends on the Reynolds
number and Schmidt number μ/ρDv.
• The rates of heat and mass transfer, when these processes are
under the control of the same boundary layer, are given by
equations that are identical in form.
 THEORY OF WET BULB TEMPERATURE
•  For turbulent flow of the gas stream these equations are:
• For heat transfer
• For mass transfer =bNRenNSc-m
• Where b, n, m = constants and
M = average molecular weight of gas stream.
• Substitution of hy and ky from above equations to the equation
on previous slide and replacing M = MB, gives

or
 
= - =-

• If m is taken as 2/3, the predicted value of hy/Mbky for air in water

is 0.24(0.62/0.71)2/3, or 0.22 But/lb-oF. The experimental value is
0.26 Btu/lb-oF, somewhat larger than predicted because of heat
transfer by radiation.
 PSYCHROMETERIC LINE AND LEWIS RELATION
•  For a given wet bulb temperature, equation
 
=-

can be plotted on the humidity chart as a straight line having a

slope of and intersecting the 100 percent line at Tw. This line is
called the psychrometric line.
• When both a psychrometric line and an adiabatic saturation line
are plotted for the same point on the 100 percent curve, the
relation between the lines depends on the relative magnitudes of
cs and .
• For the system air-water at ordinary conditions the heat cs is
almost equal to the specific heat cp, and the following equation is
nearly correct: =csand is known as Lewis relation.
• When this relation holds, as for air-water system, the
psychrometric line and the adiabatic-saturation line becomes the
same. For other systems separate lines must be used.
MEASUREMENT OF HUMIDITY
 Cooling Towers
• A cooling tower is a special type of heat exchanger in which the
warm water and the air are brought in direct contact for
evaporative cooling.
• It must provide a very good contact of air and water in terms of the
contact area and mass transfer coefficient of water vapor while
keeping the air pressure drop low.
• In the early years of industrial development, cooling of warm water
for reuse was done in ‘spray ponds’.
• In a spray pond, a spray system located about six to eight feet
above the water surface creates small droplets of water that cool
down by evaporation in contact with air.
• This is a simple and easy process but requires a large pond area. It
is inefficient (the effective heat transfer coefficient is about 3.5
Btu/h.ft2.oF or 20 W/m2.K), and creates the problem of entrainment
and carryover of water droplets by air.
• First wooden packed tower was build in the USA in 1898.
 Cooling Towers
• The important factors that govern the operation of a cooling tower are:
1) The dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures of the air.
2) The temperature of warm water.
3) The efficiency of contact between air and water in terms of the
volumetric mass transfer coefficient and the contact time. between
the air and the water.
4) The uniformity of distribution of the phases within the tower.
5) The air pressure drop.
6) The desired temperature of the cooled water.
• A tower is irrigated at the top through spray nozzles.
• A large air-water contact area and contact time are offered by a typical
tower packing.
• Air may enter the tower driven by a density gradient (natural draft),
may be pushed into the tower (forced draft) at the base or sucked in
the tower (induced tower) assisted by a fan.
 Types of Cooling Towers
• The more important types are classified and described below.
Atmospheric Towers
• An atmospheric tower consists of a big rectangular chamber with
two opposite louvered walls.
• The tower is packed with suitable tower fill.
• Atmospheric air enters the tower through the louvers driven by
its own velocity.
• An atmospheric tower is cheap but inefficient and its
performance largely depend on direction and wind velocity.
 Types of Cooling Towers
Natural Draft (hyperbolic) Towers
• A natural draft cooling tower has a large reinforced concrete shell
of hyperbolic shape.
• A small part of it near the
bottom is filled with high-
void packing consisting of
inclined wood or PVC battens
of suitable size (1” x 2” cross-
section is common) fitted into
slots along the supporting
frames.
• Alternative layers of battens
run in perpendicular directions.
• The warm water splashes to
form droplets as it falls from
one batten to the next lower.
 Types of Cooling Towers
Natural Draft (hyperbolic) Towers
• Evaporation, and the resulting cooling of water, occurs at the water-
film on the battens as well as on the surface of a droplet.
• A few layers of batten placed above the water distributor act as the
drift eliminator, which arrest fine water droplets (like the dry packing
above the distributor in a packed tower) that tend to be carried away
by the up-flowing air.
• A natural draft tower is so called because natural flow of air occurs
through the tower.
• Two factors are responsible for crating the natural draft;
1) A rise in temperature and humidity of air in the column reduces its
density.
2) The wind velocity at the tower bottom.
• The pressure drop across the tower is low (a fraction of an inch of
water) and the air velocity above the packing may vary from 1-1.5
m/s.
• The concrete tower is supported on a set of reinforced concrete
columns.
 Types of Cooling Towers
Natural Draft (hyperbolic) Towers
• Air enters the tower at the bottom through the large openings in
between the supporting columns and moves countercurrent to water.
• In fan assisted natural draft towers, a few fans are installed at the
bottom to enhance the air flow rate.
• Natural draft tower are used in big installations like steam power
plants requiring a huge quantity of cooling water.
• The diameter may be as large as 100 m and the height about 150m
and the capacity may be as high as 500,000 gpm water.
• The hyperbolic shape is made because of the following reasons:
1) More packing can be fitted in the bigger area at the bottom of the
shell.
2) The entering air gets smoothly directed towards the centre because
of the shape of the wall, producing strong upward draft.
3) Greater structural strength and stability of the shell by this shape.
• The initial cost is high but the absence of a fan reduces the operating
and maintenance costs making it economic over a long period of time.
 Types of Cooling Towers
Mechanical DraftTowers
• Because of their huge shape, construction difficulties and cost,
natural draft towers have been replaced by mechanical draft
towers in many installations.
• Compact and relatively small size units of rectangular shape are
now available and preferred in process industries and petroleum
refineries.
• A mechanical draft tower uses fans to move the air through the
tower.
• The two types of such towers are:
a) Forced draft towers
b) Induced draft towers.
• The towers that uses both forced and induced draft fans are
called balanced draft towers.
 Types of Cooling Towers
Forced Draft Towers
• It has one or more fans located at the tower bottom to push air
into the tower. The air flows counter-current to the direction of
water.
• The advantages are:
1) A part of the velocity head
of air thrown by the blower is
converted to pressure head
on entering into the tower.
This makes forced draft tower
slightly more energy efficient
than the induced draft type.
2) The system is less
susceptible to vibrations
because the fans are installed
near the ground on a solid
foundation.
 Types of Cooling Towers
Forced Draft Towers
• The disadvantages are:
1) The air flow through the packing or fill may not be uniform,
particularly if the tower is
big and a big fan is used.
2) Some of the warm and
humid air may be recirculated
back into the tower thereby
reducing the performance.
• The recirculation rate becomes
low if the wind velocity is high.
• Forced draft towers are not
very popular except for
small capacities.
 Types of Cooling Towers
Induced Draft Towers
• An induced draft tower has one or more fans located at the top.
• The fans suck fresh air through the air inlets at the bottom.
• The air flow or draft is ‘induced’ by
the suction created by the fans.
• Types of induced draft towers are:
1) Crossflow between air & water,
2) Counterflow in which a vertical
movement of air counter-current to
the warm water occurs.
• The major advantage of this flow
configuration is that the relatively dry
air contacts the coldest water at the
bottom, and humid air contacts the
warm water at the top of the tower.
• This ensures maximum average
driving force for both heat and mass
transfer.
 Types of Cooling Towers
Induced Draft Towers
• But more fan power is required because of the restricted area of
air flow at the bottom and, unlike the forced draft system, the
velocity head of the air thrown out of the tower by the fan is
dissipated.
• The cross-flow induced draft cooling tower provides horizontal air
flow along the packed
height.
• The air flow is cross-
current to the down-
flowing water.
• Louvers are provided
all along the walls of the
tower to allow the air to
move in.
 Types of Cooling Towers
Induced Draft Towers
• But the growth of algae on the fills is more because the tower interior
gets more sunlight through the larger number of louvers.
• The induced draft counter-flow towers are nowadays built in compact
cellular modules.
• Additional ‘cells’ may be added to increase the capacity if necessary.
Each cell is proved with fan, water distributor, and accessories. This is
a big advantage of this type of towers.
• However, liquid distribution, in a cross-flow tower is done by gravity
flow through a hot water basin above the packing which may be easily
cleaned.
• A counter-flow tower needs distribution under pressure through spray
nozzles which not so easy to clean.
Spray filled towers
• It is the simplest but least efficient induced draft cooling tower.
• It has no packing inside.
• Water is sprayed at the top of empty tower and air flow counter-
current to the falling spray.
 Structural Component and Material of Construction of Cooling Towers
• The major structural components of a cooling tower are
1) The shell or the framework and casing walls.
2) The tower fill.
3) The louvers.
4) The drift eliminators
5) The water distributor
6) The cold water basin the fan deck and fan cylinders
7) Mechanical equipment supports.
The shell, the framework and casing walls
• A natural draft tower has a hyperbolic reinforced concrete shell.
• A forced draft tower of rectangular shape has a framework made of
concrete or wood which is enclosed by casing walls.
• Treated wood has been the material for the casing walls for many
decades. Chromated copper arsenate (CCA) has been used for
treating wood to protect it against bacterial degradation.
• Since arsenic is a severe pollutant, acid copper chromate (ACC)
containing salts of chromium, chromic acid and copper is now the
preferred agent for wood treatment.
 Structural Component and Material of Construction of Cooling Towers
The shell, the framework and casing walls
• These chemical diffuse into the wood during treatment in a pressure
vessel and are retained in it by weak complexion.
• Wood is relatively insensitive to chlorides and sulphides, but may get
slowly degraded by excessive free chlorine.
• Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) corrugated sheets have been tried for
building casing walls. But relatively high thermal expansion
characteristics of PVC have limited its use.
• Cement asbestos board (CAB) is a good material for walls, but it is
substantially heavy and sometimes susceptible to chemical attack.
Further, asbestos is classified as a carcinogen.
• The most favored material for casing walls and louvers at present is
the corrugated glass-fibre reinforced polyester (FRP or GRP). It is
lightweight. The opaque variety guards against the algal growth within
the tower by preventing the entry of sunlight.
• Ultraviolet protective additives are often used to extend its life.
• The FRP made from chlorinated polyesters has the inherent flame
retardant ability.
 Structural Component and Material of Construction of Cooling Towers
The tower fill
• The tower fill is the single most important component of a cooling
tower.
• A good fill should promote a high contact surface and contact time
between air and water while imposing little resistance and pressure
drop on the air flow.
• The fills are broadly of two types;
1) Splash-type fill
2) Film-type fill
• The splash-type fills are traditional. This type of fill consists of
staggered rows of ‘splash bars’.
• Wood battens or slates of suitable size (0.5–1″ thick, 3–4″ wide, and
4-6‫ ׳‬long) were the only material used over the decades.
• The battens are fitted into slots along a supporting frame.
• The splash bars covered with thin water-films intercept the falling
droplets. On hitting a splash bar, the droplets break. The contact time
is greatly increased because of repeated interception of the droplets
by splash bars.
 Structural Component and Material of Construction of Cooling Towers
The tower fill
• Beginning 1950s, the wood has been gradually replaced by
plastics.
• The advantages of plastic materials are their resistance to
microbial attack, corrosion and erosion, compatibility with other
materials, formability, high strength-to-weight ratio, and
comparatively low cost. Plastics are also least susceptible to
changes in the water condition.
• The most commonly used plastics
for use in tower fills (in the form of
battens or V-bars) are PVC,
polypropylene and FRP.
• Thin concrete slabs (1.5-2″ thick,
3-4″ wide), coated with water
resistant paints, are also used,
 Structural Component and Material of Construction of Cooling Towers
The tower fill
• Splash fills are used in both cross-flow and counter-flow towers.
• The are not prone to clogging, create only a small air pressure
drop and allow easy cleaning.
• The splash bars must be horizontal, sagging of bars causes
‘channeling’ o air and water.
• The film-type fill (also called film-pack) which is similar to the
structured packing, consists of vertical corrugated sheets with a
spacing of 18-25 mm.
• PVC is the most widely used material because it is inert and can
be molded easily into the desired shape.
• The sheets are glued to make rectangular units having sides about
1.5-2 m.
• The warm water spreads into thin films flowing aling the fill surface.
• The air flows through the passage between the adjacent sheets.
• The film-type fill is used in counter-flow towers only and provides a
higher cooling capacity for the same tower volume.
 Structural Component and Material of Construction of Cooling Towers
The tower fill
• Uniform spacing of the fill sheets
is very important to ensure uniform
distribution of air flow and to prevent
‘channeling’.
• This type of tower fill is not
recommended where the
circulating cooling water contains
foreign substances and debris.
 Structural Component and Material of Construction of Cooling Towers
Louvers
• Louvers are inclined blade or passage type assemblies fitted at
the air inlet wall of a cooling tower to promote uniform air entry
into the tower while preventing water splash out.
• Cross-flow towers are always provided with louvers to allow
uniform air flow all along the wall.
• Closely spaced and steeply sloped louvers are effective for water
containment.
• The most important louver
materials are corrugated
fire-retardant fiber-reinforced
polyester and treated wood.
• Use of asbestos cement
board material for louvers
is declining.
 Structural Component and Material of Construction of Cooling Towers
Drift Eliminators
• Water droplets carried over by the outgoing air are collectively
called drift. It is like entrainment of liquid in the gas in a
conventional packed tower.
• Drift causes loss of cooling water.
• It is also a potential nuisance in the region close to cooling tower.
• Drift is more likely to occur in a tower using splash fills.
• A drift eliminator arrests the floating water droplets by impaction
as the air passes through it.
• A few layers of slats placed in the frame above the water
distributor may act as the drift eliminator.
• A ‘honeycomb’ type drift eliminator made from a plastic material
(predominantly PVC) with passages for air.
• By using an effective drift eliminator, the drift level can be
reduced to 0.02% of the water flow or even less.
 Structural Component and Material of Construction of Cooling Towers
Fans
• Cooling tower fans should deliver large volumes of air efficiently.
• The fan blades should be properly balanced to minimize
vibration.
• The fan diameter ranges from less than a meter to as large as
10 meter.
• Larger fans are equipped with ‘adjustable pitch blades’ to
regulate the air flow rate as per requirement in order to minimize
wastage of electric power it there is a change in the cooling load.
• A drive shaft transmits power from the motor through a gear box.
• The fan rpm typically ranges between 150 and 400, the tip speed
of the fan blade may be as high as 4000 m/min.
• FRP is the common material for fan blades.
• In induced draft towers the air thrown by the fan leaves through
a tall ‘fan stack’ or ‘fan cylinder’ of a smooth profile to ensure
‘velocity recover’.
 Structural Component and Material of Construction of Cooling Towers
Fans
• Typical fiber-reinforced plastic fan cylinder used in induced draft
tower is shown in figure below.
 Structural Component and Material of Construction of Cooling Towers
Water Distribution
• Water enters through a main header and is supplied to the
individual compartments or cells of a mechanical draft tower.
• A spray distributor is common in counter-flow towers.
• A cross-flow tower uses an open distribution deck.
 Interference and Recirculation Problems in Cooling Towers
• A number of cooling towers may have to be used if the hot water
load is large. The towers are very often installed at one place in
the plant for convenience.
• Interference and recirculation are two common problems with
cooling towers placed in proximity.
• Some of the moist air leaving a tower may be sucked into another
tower installed ‘downwind’ in the vicinity of the former affecting
the performance. This is called ‘interference’.
• Sometimes a part of the moist air from a tower may be sucked
into itself by the ‘forced draft fan’. This is called ‘recirculation.
• The ratio of the ‘plume velocity’ to the ‘wind velocity’ is an
important factor to determine the extent of recirculation. If this
ratio is small, a forced draft tower becomes more susceptible to
recirculation.
• Both the phenomena of interference and recirculation reduce the
enthalpy driving force for cooling and adversely affect the
performance of cooling towers.
Interference and Recirculation Problems in Cooling Towers
 Cooling Range and Approach
• The difference in the temperatures of the inlet
hot water and the outlet cooled water is
called the ‘range of cooling’ or simply ‘range’.
• The difference between the cooled water
temperature leaving a tower and the wet bulb
temperature of the inlet air is the ‘approach’.
• For example, if hot water is cooled from 40oC
to 30oC by air of wet-bulb temperature 27oC,
the range is (40-30) 10oC and the approach is
(30-27) 3oC.
• If a small ‘approach’ is targeted for cooling
tower design, the height of packing required
increases rapidly.
• Theoretically, the approach is zero if a tower
has an ‘infinite’ packed height.
 Cooling Tower Calculations
• An air-water contacting tower may have three major applications:
1) Evaporative cooling of warm water from the cooling water circuit
in a plant
2) Cooling of a hot gas by direct contact with cool water
3) Dehumidification of a warm moist gas in contact with cool water.
• The design procedures are described below.
Sizing of a Cooling Tower
• For sizing a cooling tower we primarily need to calculate:
1) The tower cross-section required to take the given load of warm
water.
2) The height of packing required to achieve the desired cooling of
the water.
• Simultaneous heat and mass transfer are involved. The mass and
enthalpy balance equations for the air and the water streams over a
thin section the tower must be written.
• The equations will be then integrated for the calculation of required
height of packing.
 Cooling Tower Calculations
Sizing of a Cooling Tower
• Assumptions:
1) The rate of vaporization of water is much less than the rate of
water input to the tower (typically about 1% loss of the feed
water occurs due to vaporization, hence the water flow rate
within the tower remains essentially constant).
2) Adiabatic cooling of water occurs in the tower (there is no heat
gain or loss at the tower wall).
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Sizing of a Cooling Tower
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Blow down from Cooling Tower
Blow down from Cooling Tower
 The problem of Legioellosis in Cooling Towers
• A cooling tower offers an environment congenial for the growth
of a rod-shaped bacteria called legionella pneumophila that
causes respiratory diseases.
• Infection may be caused by mist of drift from a cooling tower.
• The disease is reported to have claimed lives in many places.
• Cooling tower water must be tested periodically for the presence
of this bacteria.
• Dosing of ozone, hydrogen peroxide, or the use of a UV source
have all been found to be useful to control the growth of this
bacteria.
• Also, a cooling tower must be cleaned periodically and stagnant
pocket of water must be avoided.
• In some countries a code of practice (cop) for cooling tower
operation has been introduced to check the problems of
bacterial growth, plume etc.
 Typical Values of Design Variables for Cooling Towers
• The practical values of the important design variables and
parameters of cooling towers are given below:
• Range = 8 – 15 oC;
• Approach = 5 – 6oC;
• Evaporation loss = 1.5 – 2%;
• Drift loss = 0.02 – 0.2%;
• Overall volumetric gas-phase mass transfer coefficient, Kγa =
1500 – 3000 kg/(h)(m2)(ΔY΄);
• Packing depth =5–10m for splash packings, 1.5–2m for filmpack;
• Liquid mass flow rate = 2-5 gallon/min.ft2;
• L/G = 0.75 to 1.5;
• Free space above the drift eliminator = 2-3m;
• Height of the fan stack (or fan cylinder) = 3 – 5 m;
• Spacing of corrugated sheets in a film pack = 19 – 25 mm.