Chapter 6

Transformations of Stress and Strain

¶ The aircraft wing is being tested to determine how forces due to lift are distributed

through the wing.

¶ This chapter will examine methods for determining maximum stresses and strains at

any point in a structure such as this, as well as study the stress conditions necessary

to cause failure.
 Objectives

In this chapter, you will:

• Apply stress transformation equations to plane stress situations to determine any stress component at a

point.

• Apply the alternative Mohr's circle approach to perform plane stress transformations.

• Use transformation techniques to identify key components of stress, such as principal stresses.

• Extend Mohr's circle analysis to examine three-dimensional states of stress.

 CONTENTS OF THIS UNIT

Introduction

6.1 TRANSFORMATION OF PLANE STRESS

6.1A Transformation Equations

6.1B Principal Stresses and Maximum Shearing Stress

6.2 MOHR’S CIRCLE FOR PLANE STRESS

6.3 GENERAL STATE OF STRESS

6.4 THREE-DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS OF STRESS

 
Introduction
 The most general state of stress at a given point Q is represented by six components (Sec. 1.4).
 Three of these components, , , and , are the normal stresses exerted on the faces of a small cubic element
centered at Q with the same orientation as the coordinate axes (Fig. 6.1a).
 The other three, , , and , are the components of the shearing stresses on the same element.
 The same state of stress will be represented by a different set of components if the coordinate axes are
rotated (Fig. 6.1b).
 In this chapter we are going to determine how the components of stresses are transformed under a
rotation of the coordinate axes.

Fig. 6.1 General state of stress at a point: (a) referred to {xyz},

(b) referred to {x'y'z'}.
 
 Our discussion of the transformation of stress will deal mainly with plane stress, i.e., with a situation in which
two of the faces of the cubic element are free of any stress.
 If the z axis is chosen perpendicular to these faces, , and the only remaining stress components are , , and (Fig.
6.2).
 This situation occurs in a thin plate subjected to forces acting in the mid-plane of the plate (Fig. 6.3).
 It also occurs on the free surface of a structural element or machine component where any point of the surface of
that element or component is not subjected to an external force (Fig. 6.4).

Fig. 6.2 Non-zero stress components Fig. 6.3 Example of plane stress:
thin plate subjected to only in-plane
for state of plane stress. loads. Fig. 6.4 Example of plane stress:
free surface structural component.
 
 In Sec. 6.1A, a state of plane stress at a given point Q is characterized by the stress components , ,
and associated with the element shown in Fig. 6.5a.
 Components , , and associated with that element after it has been rotated through an angle about the
z axis (Fig. 6.5b) will then be determined.
 In Sec. 6.1B, the value of will be found, where the stresses and are the maximum and minimum
stresses.
 These values of the normal stress are the principal stresses at point Q, and the faces of the
corresponding element define the principal planes of stress at that point.
 The angle of rotation for which the shearing stress is maximum also is discussed.

Fig. 6.5 State of plane stress: (a) referred to of a

{xyz}, (b) referred to {x'y'z'}.
 In Sec. 6.2, an alternative method to solve problems involving the transformation of plane
stress, based on the use of Mohr’s circle, is presented.
 In Sec. 6.3, the three-dimensional state of stress at a given point is discussed, and the
normal stress on a plane of arbitrary orientation at that point is determined.
 In Sec. 6.4, the rotations of a cubic element about each of the principal axes of stress and
the corresponding transformations of stress are described by three different Mohr’s circles.
 For a state of plane stress at a given point, the maximum value of the shearing stress
obtained using rotations in the plane of stress does not necessarily represent the maximum
shearing stress at that point.
 This make it necessary to distinguish in-plane and out-of-plane maximum shearing
stresses.
  
6.1 TRANSFORMATION OF PLANE STRESS
6.1A Transformation Equations
 a state of plane stress exists at point Q (with ) and is defined by the stress components , ,
and associated with the element shown in Fig. 6.5a.
 The stress components , , and associated with the element are determined after it has been
rotated through an angle about the z axis (Fig. 6.5b).These components are given in
terms of , , , and .

Fig. 6.6 Stress transformation equations are

determined by considering an arbitrary prismatic
wedge element. (a) Geometry of the element. (b) Free-
body diagram.
 
 In order to determine the normal stress and shearing stress exerted on the face perpendicular

to the x' axis, consider a prismatic element with faces perpendicular to the x, y, and x' axes

(Fig. 6.6a).

 If the area of the oblique face is , the areas of the vertical and horizontal faces are equal to

and , respectively.

 The forces exerted on the three faces are as shown in Fig. 6.6b. (No forces are exerted on the

triangular faces of the element, since the corresponding normal and shearing stresses are

assumed equal to zero.)

 Using components along the x' and y' axes, the equilibrium equations are
 

Solving the first equation for and the second for

(6.1)
(6.2)
Recalling the trigonometric relations
(6.3)
And
(6.4)
 
Eq. (6.1) is rewritten as

Or

(6.5)

Using the relationships of Eq. (6.3), Eq. (6.2) is now

(6.6)
 
The normal stress is obtained by replacing in Eq. (6.5) by the angle that the y' axis forms
with the x axis. Since and ,
(6.7)
Adding Eqs. (6.5) and (6.7) member to member,
(6.8)
Since , we thus verify for plane stress that the sum of the normal stresses exerted on a
cubic element of material is independent of the orientation of that element.
 
6.1B Principal Stresses and Maximum Shearing Stress
Equations (6.5) and (6.6) are the parametric equations of a circle.
This means that, if a set of rectangular axes is used to plot a point M of abscissa and ordinate for
any given parameter , all of the points obtained will lie on a circle.
To establish this property, we eliminate from Eqs. (6.5) and (6.6) by first transposing in Eq. (6.5) and
squaring both members of the equation, then squaring both members of Eq. (6.6), and finally adding
member to member the two equations obtained:
(6.9)
Setting
and (6.10)
The identity of Eq. (6.9) is given as
(6.11)
which is the equation of a circle of radius R centered at the point C of abscissa and ordinate 0
(Fig. 6.7).
 
Due to the symmetry of the circle about the horizontal axis, the same result is obtained if a
point N of abscissa and ordinate is plotted instead of M. (Fig. 6.8).
This property will be used in Sec. 6.2

Fig. 6.7 Circular relationship of Fig. 6.8 Equivalent formation of stress

transformed stresses. transformation circle.
 
The points A and B where the circle of Fig. 6.7 intersects the horizontal axis are of special

interest:

 point A corresponds to the maximum value of the normal stress , while

 point B corresponds to its minimum value.

 Both points also correspond to a zero value of the shearing stress .

Thus, the values of the parameter which correspond to points A and B can be obtained by

setting in Eq. (6.6).

(6.12)
 
This equation defines two values that are apart and thus two values that are apart.
Either value can be used to determine the orientation of the corresponding element (Fig. 6.9).
The planes containing the faces of the element obtained in this way are the principal planes of
stress at point Q, and the corresponding values and exerted on these planes are the principal
stresses at Q.
Since both values defined by Eq. (6.12) are obtained by setting in Eq. (6.6), it is clear that
no shearing stress is exerted on the principal planes.
From Fig. 6.7,
 
 
(6.13)
Substituting for and R from Eq. (6.10),

(6.14)
†This relationship also can be obtained by differentiating in Eq. (6.5) and setting the derivative
equal to zero: .
Unless it is possible to tell by inspection which of these principal planes is subjected to and
which is subjected to , it is necessary to substitute one of the values into Eq. (6.5) in order to
determine which corresponds to the maximum value of the normal stress.
 
Referring again to Fig. 6.7, points D and E located on the vertical diameter of the circle correspond to the
largest value of the shearing stress . Since the abscissa of points D and E is , the values of the parameter
corresponding to these points are obtained by setting in Eq. (6.5). The sum of the last two terms in that
equation must be zero. Thus, for ,

Or
(6.15)
This equation defines two values that are apart, and thus two values that are apart.
Either of these values can be used to determine the orientation of the element corresponding to the
maximum shearing stress (Fig. 6.10).
Fig. 6.7 shows that the maximum value of the shearing stress is equal to the radius R of the circle.
Recalling the second of Eqs. (6.10),
 
(6.16)

As observed earlier, the normal stress corresponding to the condition of maximum shearing stress is

(6.17)

Comparing Eqs. (6.12) and (6.15), is the negative reciprocal of .

 Thus, angles and are apart, and therefore angles and are apart.

 Thus, the planes of maximum shearing stress are at to the principal planes.

 This confirms the results found in Sec. 1.4 for a centric axial load (Fig. 1.38) and in Sec. 3.1C for

a torsional load (Fig. 3.17).

 
the analysis of the transformation of plane stress has been limited to rotations in the plane of stress.

If the cubic element of Fig. 6.5 is rotated about an axis other than the z axis, its faces may be

subjected to shearing stresses larger than defined by Eq. (6.16).

In Sec. 6.3, this occurs when the principal stresses in Eq. (6.14) have the same sign (i.e., either

both tensile or both compressive).

In these cases, the value given by Eq. (6.16) is referred to as the maximum in plane shearing

stress.

†This relationship also can be obtained by differentiating in Eq. (6.6) and setting the derivative

equal to zero: 0.
  
Concept Application 6.1 a. Principal Planes. Following the usual sign convention, the
stress components are
For the state of plane stress shown in
Fig. 6.11a, determine (a) the principal
Substituting into Eq. (6.12),
planes, (b) the principal stresses, (c) the
maximum shearing stress and the
corresponding normal stress.
b. Principal Stresses. Equation (7.14) yields
 
The principal planes and principal stresses are shown in Fig. 6.11b. Making in Eq. (6.5), it is
confirmed that the normal stress exerted on face BC of the element is the maximum stress:

a. Maximum Shearing Stress. Equation (6.16) yields

Since and have opposite signs, actually represents the maximum value of the shearing stress at the
point.
The orientation of the planes of maximum shearing stress and the sense of the shearing stresses are
determined by passing a section along the diagonal plane AC of the element of Fig. 6.11b.
  
 Since the faces AB and BC of the element are in the principal planes, the diagonal plane AC
must be one of the planes of maximum shearing stress (Fig. 6.11c).
 Furthermore, the equilibrium conditions for the prismatic element ABC require that the
shearing stress exerted on AC be directed as shown.
 The cubic element corresponding to the maximum shearing stress is shown in Fig. 6.11d.
 The normal stress on each of the four faces of the element is given by Eq. (6.17):

Fig. 6.11 (a) Plane stress element. (b) Plane stress element oriented in principal directions. (c) Plane stress
element showing principal and maximum shear planes. (d) Plane stress element showing maximum shear

Sample Problem 6.1
A single horizontal force P with a magnitude of 150 lb
is applied to end D of lever ABD. Knowing that portion
AB of the lever has a diameter of 1.2 in., determine (a)
the normal and shearing stresses located at point H and
having sides parallel to the x and y axes, (b) the
principal planes and principal stresses at point H.
STRATEGY: You can begin by determining the forces
and couples acting on the section containing the point of
interest, and then use them to calculate the normal and
shearing stresses acting at that point. These stresses can
then be transformed to obtain the principal stresses and
their orientation.
MODELING and ANALYSIS:
Force-Couple System. We replace the force P by an
equivalent force-couple system at the center C of the
transverse section containing point H (Fig.1):
  
Fig. 2 General plane stress element (showing positive
directions).

 
Fig. 1 Equivalent force-couple system acting on
transverse section containing point H.
a. Stresses , , at Point H.
Using the sign convention shown in Fig. 6.2, the
sense and the sign of each stress component are found
by carefully examining the force-couple system at
point C (Fig. 1):
  
Substituting into Eq. (6.14), the magnitudes of the principal
stresses are

Fig. 3 Stress element at point H.

We note that the shearing force P does not cause any
shearing stress at point H. The general plane stress element Considering face ab of the element shown, in Eq. (6.5) and
(Fig. 2) is completed to reflect these stress results (Fig. 3). The principal stresses are as shown in Fig. 4.
 
a. Principal Planes and Principal Stresses. Substituting the
values of the stress components into Eq. (7.12), the
orientation of the principal planes is

Fig. 4 Stress element at point H

oriented in principal directions.