Sec A: AVIONICS FUNDAMENTALS

Radio : wireless transmission of information from one

point to another
Types of avionics system that uses radio waves
1- Communication 2- Navigation
3- Air traffic control (ATC) RADAR
4-Weather avoidance RADAR
5- Approach and landing Aids (ILS)
6- Altitude Measurement
7- Airborne Collision Avoidance
Radio operating principles
Terminology of electromagnetic waves
1- frequency 4- A- ground waves
2- carrier waves B- sky waves
3- modulation C- space waves
-----------------------------------------------------------------
Radio communication components
1- amplifiers 2- oscillators 3- modulators
4- filters 5- antennas 6- tuning circuits
7- transmitters 8- receivers 9- speakers
Radio components
1-Radio waves are produced when an electrical signal
in the radio frequency range is sent to an antenna.
2-The antenna converts the electrical signal into
radio waves which travel outward from the antenna
through space at the speed of light (186,284 m.p.h).
3-When the radio waves strike a receiving antenna a
voltage and current is induced which produces an
electrical signal that matches the one applied to the
transmit antenna.
4-The basic operating frequency of a radio is called
the carrier frequency because it carries the
transmitted information from one place to another.
(EM) Electromagnetic waves
An electromagnetic wave is produced by the
synchronized oscillations of electric and magnetic
fields.
Radio transmits and receives information by
means of electromagnetic waves(carrier wave)
Information must be converted into electrical
signals before it can be transmitted by radio waves
Types of EM waves:
1- radio waves 2- X rays 3- infrared light
4- gamma rays 5- ultraviolet rays
1-FREQUENCY
Number of cycles occurs in a given period of
time
F= number of cycles per second ( HERTZ )
Wavelength= speed of propagation/
frequency
Speed of propagation=
300,000,000m/s(speed of light)
Ex: what is the wavelength of 300kHz(LF)
transmission?
Wavelength= 300,000,000 = 1000meter
300*1000
Frequency spectrum
frequency freq. band wavelength

3-30 kHz VLF 100KM-10KM

30-300kHz LF 10KM-1KM

300-3000kHz MF 1KM-100METER

3-30 MHz HF 100METER-10METER

30- 300MHz VHF 10METER-1METER

300-3000MHz UHF 1METER-10CM

3-30GHz SHF 10CM-1CM

30-300GHz EHF 1CM-1mm

RADIO WAVES BANDS
Radio waves
 Radio waves are classified according to the frequency band they occupy.
 Very low frequency (VLF).
 Low frequency (LF).
 Medium frequency (MF).
 High frequency (HF).
 Very high frequency (VHF).
 Ultra high frequency (UHF).
 Super high frequency (SHF)
 Extremely high frequency (EHF).

All radio waves consist of electronic and magnetic energy fields that travel in space

These two fields travel at right angle to each other and to the direction of wave travels
All radio waves consist of electric and
magnetic energy fields that travel
through space.
The two fields are located at right
angles to each other and to the
direction of wave travel.
Notice that there is an aviation
application for all of the bands except
VLF and EHF.
Radio waves travel
 2-CARRIER WAVES
Is necessary to transmit radio wave information.
Transmitting audio signal directly will require an
antenna several miles long
Antenna length is usually one quarter 1/4 to one half
½ the length of the wave it TX or RX
So high frequency (short wave length) (carrier wave)
are transmitted and received by small antennas
At higher frequencies many channels are formed (more
room) to transmit without interference
3-MODULATION
Purpose: to produce a useful transmission
with little interference.
How: By superimposing information (audio) on a
higher frequency (carrier wave).
In order to transmit information, it is necessary to
vary or alter the carrier wave in some way.
This alteration is called modulation.
Types of modulation:
1- AM (AMPLITUDE MODULATION)
2- FM (FREQUENCY MODULATION)
Amplitude modulation (AM)
Amplitude of the carrier wave
varies with change in amplitude
of the information signal(audio
wave)
While, Frequency is fixed
AM
 FREQUENCY MODULATION (FM)

The carrier amplitude stays constant while the carrier

frequency change according to the amplitude of
information signal change
FM is better than AM because:
1- FM less effected by noise or static
(atmospheric electrostatic emission commonly called
noise or static, created by thunderstorms and other
disturbances )
2- reject interfering signals
3- improves transmitter effectiveness
FM
4-GROUND, SKY AND SPACE
WAVES
It’s terms that describes behavior of radio wave as
they travel through the earth atmosphere and beyond
Ground waves: are the waves that follow the
curvature of the earth (below HF- below 3 MHz)
(short range radio waves)

SKY waves: operate in the HF( 3-30 MHz)

Travel in straight lines but they reflect from the
ionosphere (long range radio waves)
SPACE waves: above HF(above 30 MHz), they
travel in straight lines, but they bounce off the
ionosphere (used to communicate with sats)
 Basic radio components
Radio communications equipment
transmits and receives, or transceives, radio
frequency (RF) signals to transfer audio
sounds from one point to another.
Navigation radios are generally used to
receive RF signals that are subsequently
converted to an electrical signal in order to
drive a graphic display.
 1-TRANSMITTERS
Is the electronic unit that accepts information and
converts it into a radio frequency (RF) signal
capable of being transmitted over long distances.

purpose :
1- It generates signal of correct frequency at a
desired point.(OSCILLATION)
2- It provide modulation that causes the
information signal to modify carrier signal
3- Provide power amplification so that it will carry
the signal to the desired distance
2-Oscillators
A device that generates the carrier signal at the
desired frequency.
Most common types of oscillators:
1- variable frequency oscillator(VFO)
2- CRYSTAL oscillator
3- phase locked loop oscillator(PLL).
Simple oscillator consist of LC
(L:Inductor C: CAPACITOR)
3-AMPLIFIERS
An amplifier is a component that increases the
strength of a signal and is found in both
transmitters and receivers.
Types of amplifiers:
1- linear (class A, AB, B)
2- CLASS C
3- switching amplifiers
Class A and B used to amplify AM radio signal
Class C and switching amplifiers are used to
amplify FM radio signals
4-Modulators and Demodulators
1- MODULATOR: (TX) a device that superimpose the
audio frequency (AF) into the radio frequency (RF)
(carrier wave) before it is sent the antenna.
2-DEMODULATER: (RX)Receive the modulated
signal and remove the audio frequency (AF) from the
(RF) and produces an audio output
5-FILTERS
Used to remove out unwanted frequencies
Signals in a radio often receive unwanted
frequencies.
It is made of inductor and capacitor
Without proper filter the audio signal will have so
much noise.
Types of filters:
1- low pass filter : removes all frequencies above a
certain value, and passes the low frequencies.
2- high pass filter : do the opposite
3- band pass filter : allow a certain value of
frequency to bass while others are blocked
 6-ANTENNAS
(electrical conductor that radiates or receives waves).
It may be used for transmit only or receive only or both
Antenna length is quarter to one half the length of the
EM wave
Types of antennas:
1. hertz dipole (VHF nav.) Antenna.(horizontal
antenna)
2. Marconi monopole (VHF comm.) Antenna.(vertical
antenna)
3. wire antenna(found in most small and old a/c)ex:
ADF
 4. loop antenna (used on direction finding systems)
Marconi monopole antenna
Polarization
Orientation of the electric field relative to the earth.
Types of polarization :
1. vertical polarization: the electrical field at right
angle to earth
2. horizontal polarization: the electric field is
parallel to the earth
Antennas must be installed with the correct
polarization.
Polarization of a/c antenna should match the ground
antenna
Vertical polarization
Horizontal polarization
7-TUNING CIRCUITS
Used to isolate the desired frequency
Consist of a variable capacitor and inductor
connected in parallel
As the tuning knob rotates as the variable
capacitor changes
8-RECEIVERS
Used to reproduce the information signal received by
the antenna.
The receiver must have selectivity and sensitivity
Sensitivity to select the desired frequency from
thousands of frequency present.
And must provide the enough amplification to
recover the modulated signal
Ex: superheterrodyne receiver.
 9-SPEAKERS AND MICROPHONES
 microphones : Audio inputs used to transform sound waves into
electrical signals, that is to say transforms the vibration of sound waves
into varying electrical signals

 Speakers: audio outputs transforms electrical signals into sound waves

 Speakers and microphones used on a/c is different from the one on
automotive applications, these contain large magnets that produce
magnetic field emissions that can effect a/c instruments including the
magnetic compass
 Types of speakers used on a/c:
 1- metal plate attached over magnet to shield field flux and keep it close
proximity to the speaker
 2- dynamic speakers: when audio signal is applied to (winding)dynamic
speaker, it sets a magnetic field that expand and contract at an audio
rate, this field causes a metal diaphragm to vibrate at a corresponding
rate to produce the movement of air that generates sound waves.
 Also we have dynamic microphones
Avionics systems
Radio equipments used to be very large, heavy,
produce heat this caused them to be installed in
remote locations away from the cockpit
Now they become smaller and more reliable and
installed in the instrument panel in the cockpit
However in many larger a/c still installed in remote
locations to make them more accessible for servicing
Avionics system consist of two main parts:
1- communication radio systems
2- navigational systems
Communication radios
There are different types of communication
radios that differ in frequencies used and type of
communications involved, they are:
1- HF communications
2- VHF communications
3- intercom and interphone systems
4- radio telephone
5- SATCOM (satellite communications)
6- SELCAL (selective calling)
7- a/c communication addressing and reporting
system(ACARS)
1- HF COMMUNICATIONS
Operate in frequencies between (2-30) MHz
Good for a/c that fly long distances over water or remote
regions of the earth.
Have maximum reception range (1500 to 2000 miles)
 HF communications radios utilize ground and sky
waves to achieve greater reception range
a/c HF transmitters produce o/p power of 80-200 watts
to achieve long distance communication
Disadvantage: it is effected by atmospheric interference
( ex: thunderstorms)
 2-VHF COMMUNICATION
Operate on frequencies between (118 - 135.975) MHz
VHF communication provide clear reception and much less
affected by atmospheric conditions.
Waves in the VHF band are space waves (limited to line of
sight)
Maximum reception range is 250 miles at altitude above
35000 ft
VHF transmitters have an o/p of 5-20watts
VHF communication system is used for ATC purposes
Because VHF transmission is limited to line of sight,
obstructions such as building or the curvature of the earth
block the radio waves.
Antennas used are Marconi ¼ wave monopoles vertical
polarization
Compare between HF and VHF
HF VHF

Maximum reception 1500- 2000 miles 250 mile

range

Type of carrier wave Use ground and sky Use space waves
waves
Atmospheric effect Affected by atmospheric Less affected by
interference atmospheric interference

Output transmitted 80-200 watt 5-20 watt

power

Carrier signal AM FM
modulation
clearance Less clearance Much clearance
VHF RADIO SIGNALS
COMPONENTS OF VHF COMMUNICATION
INTERCOM & INTERPHONE SYSTEMS
These equipment uses audio signals to permit
communication between various points in and
around the a/c.
Both systems operate in a similar manner.
Intercom used for communication from one point
to another within the a/c
Interphone permits conversation between the
cockpit and someone outside the a/c (maintenance
personal)
For both system phone jacks are available at
different locations, a handset or headset contains a
microphone, small speaker and push to talk switch
 Radiotelephone
Similar to portable phones
It employs radio signals to permit telephone calls to
and from the a/c in flight.
Frequency used from 450-500MHz(UHF band)
Type of antenna used is Marconi antenna, but
different shape and size compared to VHF antenna.
SATCOM (satellite communication)
UHF radio installed in a/c for voice and data
communication.
It uses satellite to send information from transmitter
to receiver
It can be used for telephone calls
In some cases it is used to replace HF radios for
communication and for ATC purposes for a/c over the
ocean
SATCOM antenna is installed on top of a/c.
 SELCAL(selective calling)
Special communication system for air carrier
Used for communication between a/c in flight and people
on the ground such as the airline manager or dispatch.
When a person wants to communicate directly with specific
a/c crew, he can selectively choose which a/c to call. This
prevent disruptions to the flight crew from unwanted
communications.
Each a/c is assigned a code number, when proper code is
received atone is heard in the cockpit to alert the crew that
some one is calling them for important information.
The code consist of four tones transmitted in series, each
four tones have twelve possible frequencies, so 20,000
different codes are available(12 to the power of4)
a/c communication addressing and
reporting system (ACARS)
System used to transmit and receive maintenance
and administrative information between a/c and
ground station
Purpose: to reduce flight crew workloads and
eliminates the need to transmit routine
information by voice radio.
Messages transmitted: flight plan changes, requests
for weather information, engine performance data
Messages received by a/c are displayed on a screen
and printed on small cockpit printers
AUDIO CONTROL PANELS
It provide means of switching the
microphone and speaker connection from
one radio to another when the a/c has more
than one radio
The control panel contains a row of toggle
switches or push buttons, it also contains
rotary selector switch, some have three lights
for the marker beacon
AUDIO CONTROL PANEL
 Navigational systems
Navigation systems are used to identify the exact location of a/c
by determining direction and distance from certain point.
Types of navigation systems:
1- ADF (automatic direction finder)
2- VOR (very high frequency range)
3- DME (distance measuring equipment)
4- AREA NAVIGATION a) VORTAC-based navigation (RNAV)
 b) long range navigation (LORAN)
 c) Inertial navigation systems (INS)
 d) global positioning systems (GPS)
 e) flight management system (FMS)
AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDER (ADF)
ADF system is a reliable navigation system at lower altitudes.
ADF signals falls within low to medium frequency(LF &MF)
(ground waves)
ADF require two loop antennas(directional and sense)
antenna
They receive radio signals and send them to ADF RX
The strength of the output signal from the antenna depends
on the angle between plane of the loop and direction of travel
of the EM wave(NDB) – (ground station)
As the loop antenna rotates as the strength of signal
rise(peak) and fall(null)
The null is used to determine station location
ADF
Typical equip. of ADF
VERY HIGH FREQUENCY OMNIRANGE (VOR)
Operate in the VHF range (108-117.95) MHz
It is line of sight
It provide infinite number of radials or course
indications
Provide accurate directional information
VOR receivers determine direction from
station by comparing the timing or phase of
two signals from station(reference signal-FM)
and (rotating signal-AM)
The two signals will be in phase when the
receiver is due north of the ground site.
VOR
VOR EQUIPMENT
Distance measuring equipment
(DME)
It indicates distance in nautical miles (n.m) to the
associated VOR/DME or VORTAC site as will as
ground speed and time needed to reach the station.
DME frequency range is (960 - 1,215) MHz(UHF)
To obtain distance from station, DME transceiver( on
a/c) first transmit an interrogation signal to the
station. the ground station sends a reply back to a/c.
The transceiver then measures the round trip time of
this signal exchange, and displays the distance in
(n.m) in the flight deck.
DME can give a distance measuring tell (200n.m.)
DME components
(transceiver + blade or shark fin antenna)
DME Facilities
TACAN( TACtical Air Navigation)
Military version of VOR – includes DME
VOR / DME
VOR with Distance Measuring Equipment
VORTAC
VOR plus TACAN in one facility
VOR
Has no DME
DME SLANT RANGE
AREA NAVIGATION
Allow the pilot to fly directly to a destination
without the need to overfly VOR or other
ground stations
Types of area navigation:
1- VORTAC-based system (RNAV)
2- Long Range Navigation (LORAN)
3- Inertial Navigation System (INS)
4- Global Positioning Systems (GPS)
5- Flight Management System (FMS)
VORTAC -based area navigation (RNAV)
Permits the a/c to fly directly to the destination without
having to fly straight to VOR sites.
By creating phantom VOR waypoints at convenient
locations.
Pilot navigates from these phantoms the same way as
actual VOR navigation.
This is accomplished using (CLC) Course Line
Computer
Ex: waypoint 240/25 indicates: that the point is 25
nautical miles south east (240)degrees of transmitter site
RNAV
LONG RANGE NAVIGATION SYSTEM (LORAN)
A net work of land-based radio transmitters originally
developed to provide all weather navigation for
mariners along the US coast.
The LORAN-C uses ground transmitters at frequency
100KHz
This system operation involves TX chains, each chain
consist of one master station and two or more slave
stations
The signals received by a/c will have a time separation
that is determined by position of a/c
A computer performs calculations to determine a/c
location with accuracy from 400-1000 ft
Advantage of this system is that the signals can be
received at any altitude even if a/c is on ground.
 INERTIAL NAVEGATION SYSTEM (INS)
A self contained system that uses gyros and accelerometers
and navigation computer to calculate position.
It is a self contained system
It does not depend on reception of radio waves
Operation is by measurement of acceleration forces
Accelerometers measures acceleration in directions parallel
with the surface of the earth.
In order to have accurate information the INS must be
aligned and calibrated before takeoff by entering a/c
position using keyboard
During long flight error can occur, so the system can use
radio waves received from ground stations
 INS CONT…..
Another type of INS is the RLG (RING LASER
GYRO)or inertial reference system(IRS).
Contains 3 accelerometers and 3 ring laser gyros
A computer takes the signals coming from the
accelerometers and ring gyros to determine a/c
position, heading, and ground speed
Advantage of this type is that it is more accurate
because the computer it self that makes the corrections
 GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS)
Consist of three segments (space-control-user)
1- space segments
2- control segments
3- user segments
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Space segments are 24 NAVSTAR satellites three are
spare at altitude of 10,900 n.m
Positioned so that a minimum of five satellites are in
view to users.
They broadcast position and time information to the
GPS receiver at frequency 1.6 GHz to calculate a/c
position and altitude
For accurate information the a/c must communicate
with four different satellites
Control segments
consist of five stations located at falcon air base
one is master station and four uplink ground
antennas
These stations track all GPS satellites and calculate
precise orbit locations
The master station then issues updated navigation
messages for each satellite.
User segments (a/c)
Consist of antennas, receivers, and processors
Use the position and time information from
TX(GPS) to calculate a/c position, speed, and time
(similar to LORAN).
Receiver (a/c) establishes its position at the point
signals transmitted from each GPS, intersect each
other(L.O.P-LINE OF POSTION).
To determine position of a/c in three dimensions
(position-speed- altitude) the a/c should receive
signal from four satellites.
to determine two dimensions (position-speed)
receive signals from three satellites
GPS
Transponders(secondary RADAR)
Found in a/c, designed for ATC to easily identify
specific a/c, to prevent collisions and to provide
guidance to a/c.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
RADAR(radio detection and ranging):
Types of RADARS:
1- primary RADAR-echo location RADAR
2- secondary RADAR: located on a/c only
Primary RADAR
A device used to transmit and receive radio signals for
displaying targets.
Target appears like a spot of light on radarscope
The range of target(a/c) is determined by measuring
the time it takes for the radio wave to reach the a/c
and returning to the received antenna.
Also position of a/c is determined by the position of
the rotating antenna when radio signal is received.
But the problem of primary radar is that all the spots
on RADAR screen look the same.
Secondary radar(transponder)
A small RADAR installed in a/c
When radar pulse from ground strikes the a/c,
secondary RADAR sends a coded signal to the ground
station, this code will permit to identify if the a/c is
friend or enemy.
Both these RADARs have been adapted by ATC
(air traffic controller) purposes.
Transponder is the name of the secondary radar.
 TRANSPONDERS
A system used on a/c that uses two different frequencies,
one to transmit (1030MHz) and one to receive (1090MHz)
Ground radar(ATC) sends a coded interrogation pulse to
transponder(a/c), that sends out proper reply signal.
Each interrogation and reply signal contains a coded number
consist from 4 digits(ranges from 0000 to 7777).
ATC can identify the a/c by the code its transponder send
out
Transponder of each a/c allow the pilot to set one of 4096
different codes.
(0000) for military
(7500,7600, 7700) for a/c emergency situations
transponder
Transponder modes
1- Mode 3/A : transponder mode that can set up to
4096 different codes
2- Mode C : like mode 3/A put with extra code for a/c
pressure altitude.
3- Mode S : used to send ATC instructions or weather
reports to a/c( on printer or LCD screen), also this
mode increases number of codes to over one million,
*it is also used for (TCAS) traffic alerting and collision
avoidance system, this system allow each two aircrafts
to communicate with each other to avoid collision
 Instrument landing system(ILS)
A precision approach navigational aid to land the a/c and
also for distance guidance to a given runway.
Types of instrument approach:
1- non-precision approach, (VOR,NDB (ADF))
2- precision approach,( ILS)
==========================================
Main parts of ILS:
1- localizer (azimuth) 2- Glide slope(vertical)
3- Marker beacon 4- runway and approach lights
 SYSTEM OPERATION
Localizer and glide slope give guidance information from
ground stations(transmitters)
Localizer (horizontal)(vertical needle): provide information
to center a/c with run way, through an array located at the
end of runway (108-112)MHz
A dual beam, right beam half modulated at 150Hz
Left beam modulated 90 Hz, a/c measures the relative signal
received, if it was equal, then the a/c is center with runway
Glide slope(vertical)(horizontal needle): transmit at
frequency (328-336)MHz, upper beam modulated at
frequency 90 Hz, and the lower beam 150Hz.
ILS
ILS COMPONENTS
 ILS CON……..
3-Marker beacons are used to give distance information
It is low power TX that transmit a three cone shape pattern up to
the air, it gives an indication of the distance to the approach end
of runway
 all cones TX at frequency 75MHz modulated at:
first cone ( outer( blue :400Hz))
Second cone(middle( amber : 1300Hz)
Third cone(inner (white: 3000Hz)
4-Run way and approach lights located on a/c, and are used to
aid the pilot in the final portion of landing (blue, amber, white)
ILS
Emergency locator transmitter(ELT)
A self contained transmitter that is designed to help locate an
airplane after crash on most small a/c.
It is battery powered( tone for 48 hours), that is automatically
turned on by crash force.
Frequency 121.5MHz for civilian a/c, and 243MHz for military a/c
In 1970 it was just for over fly a/c, but now it is space borne satellite
An acceleration switch activates when a rapid force applied along
the longitudinal axis of a/c
Installed at far aft of a/c before the tail.
Batteries should be replaced and recharged at specific intervals
Also the technician need to test ELT operation, but before that he
need to disconnect the antenna or operate it for five minutes and
only for three audio sweeps.
ELT COMPONENTS
 Cockpit voice recorders(CVR) and flight
data recorders(FDR):(black box)
Used to automatically record information in flight that
can be useful during investigation following an accident
or serious incident.
Installed on all carrier jets
Must be located on the aft fuselage , which is the area least
likely to be severely damaged in accidents.
1-CVR: record sounds in the cockpit and communications on
the intercom and radio systems with (ATC)(last 30 minutes)
2-FDR: records different types of data including, airspeed,
altitude, heading, acceleration, pitch, roll, AOA, etc….
FDR record 8 hours on small a/c and 24 hours on larger a/c
RADAR altimeter
Used to display a/c altitude above ground level (AGL)
Measured by using radio signal instead of atmospheric
pressure by using antennas installed in the belly of a/c
 transmitter sends radio signal (4.3GHz) to earth and
receive the bounce off signal that is coming back by
receive antenna
By measuring the travel time for radio wave, the system
calculates the height above surface.
Altimeter range up to 2500 ft
Used mainly in case of bad weather
Ground proximity warning
system(GPWS)
Provide warning flight crew when the a/c is in danger of
striking the ground due to excessive descant rate or rising
terrain.
System operation:
computer: to monitors a lot of inputs and to make
calculations to determine if a/c is in danger of hitting the
ground .
Inputs are, barometric altitude, radar altitude, rate of
climb or descent, flaps and landing gear position
It gives a spoken voice command which tells flight
crew to “pull up, pull up or similar massage.
 WEATHER RADAR
A directional antenna located behind the nose cone that
transmit and receive brief pulses of radar frequency ahead of
a/c to locate and avoid thunderstorms.
Pulses are reflected back to a/c due to, ice, hail, and rain
Size of raindrops and type of radar used will effect the
strength of waves returned.
Intensity levels are determined by different colors (Green,
yellow, and red )
Red indicates highest intensity, and green least intensity.
 there are two types of weather radars used:
1- X-band (frequency 9.375 GHz)
2- C-band (frequency 5.44 GHz)
Weather radar bands(X-C)
X-BAND: more common used on general aviation a/c
Provide higher resolution and see farther than C-band
Disadvantage: it can not decide if there is another
storm located after the first , because little energy pass
the first storm
C-BAND: It can penetrate further than X-band,
providing amore coverage of areas in front of radar.
However, weather radars cannot detect water vapor,
lightning, or wind shear.
WEATHER RADAR COMPONENTS
STORMSCOPE
Weather avoidance system that used a different method to
locate thunderstorms.
Designed to receive radio frequency produced by
lightning discharges by using a directional antenna
LCD display shows light dots for each lightning strike
The pilot can determine where the worst areas located and
avoid them.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
Thunderstorms can tear apart strongest a/c. this is
why weather detection systems are used.
STORMSCOPE
TCAS: airborne Traffic Collision Avoidance System
Designed to supplement ATC collision avoidance
prevention using the same equipment and principle as
transponder.
Components are: computer, display screen, and
directional antenna.
a/c will send out an interrogation signal in all directions,
any transponder located within a specific range, will
send back a reply, TCAS calculate its direction, range,
and altitude.
TCAS
TYPES OF ANTENNAS
Aviation technicians should be familiar with the common
types of antenna so that they can identify them.
Antennas should only be installed according to a/c speed.
1- VOR antennas
2- localizer and glide slope antennas
3- marker beacon antennas
4- HF and VHF antennas
5- DME/ TRANSPONDER antennas
6- ELT antennas
7- SATELLITE communication antenna
8- TCAS antennas
9- RADIOTELEPHONE antennas
Types of antennas
Antennas locations
 VOR ANTENNA
Two types: 1- half wave dipole 2- balanced loop type
1- half wave dipole: (V shaped) installed on a/c on vertical
fin or top of fuselage and V shaped pointed forward or aft.
For more efficient transfer of energy from the antenna to the
coax, a “balun” is installed
2- balanced loop type: a circular reception loop, more
efficient type for RNAV application
Types of balanced loop antennas:
a- open loop towel
b- blade type: used on business jets(high speed a/c)
c- internal mount
All types come in two halves mounted on opposite sides of
vertical fin of a/c. (ON TOP OF A/C)
 VOR
BALUN VOR ANTENNA
Localizer and Glide slope antenna
VOR antenna is used to locate localizer signal on small
a/c
 on large a/c, fuselage can block localizer signal, so a
separate localizer antenna is installed(installed inside
random-a/c nose).
Some a/c use VOR antenna to receive Glide slope
signals, others us a separate antenna, same shape but
smaller size (1/3 size of VOR antenna), if this is the
case it should be located on front of a/c to prevent
interference from fuselage
Loop type glide slope antenna can be used also, it can be
installed internally or externally on forward part of a/c.
Localizer and glide slope antennas
MARKER BEACON antenna
All antennas are located on the bottom of a/c,
because signals are received when the a/c is directly
over the transmitter site.
Types of marker beacon antennas:
1- sled type: (3.1/2 – 4 feet long), bent metal wire that
uses sliding clip so that it can be loosened to tune the
antenna.
2- boat type antenna; smaller and more streamlined
HF COMMUNICATION ANTENNAS
Two types
1- probe type(old): include a special
tuner, to re-tune antenna each time
frequency changed on HF radio, mounted
on vertical stabilizer or wing tip.
2- flush type: installed inside vertical
stabilizer, it also require tuning device
installed on the antenna connection point.
VHF COMMUNICATION ANTENNA
Monopole (one pole) antenna, mounted on top or
bottom of a/c
It can be straight or bent
Advantage of using bent antenna : it is less drag and
less height for belly mounting.
Low speed a/c use thin type antennas
Faster a/c use blade type antenna, some have
stainless steel leading edge.
VHF ANTENNAS
DME/TRANSPONDER ANTENNAS
Because DME and TRANSPONDER use similar
frequency, same type of antenna can be used.
Installed on the bottom of a/c.
Types of antennas used:
1- spike type: a short metal rod with a ball on the
End, easier to install but easily damaged and can
vibrate and drag.
2- blade type: most commonly used type on modern
a/c, similar to VHF but it is much smaller(2-4inch)
Vertical polarization, ¼-wave monopoles
DME/TRANSPONDER
 ELT ANTENNAS
A thin metal rod, Marconi ¼ -wave
antenna
 located near the ELT it self because of
the ELT transmitter low output power.
ELT ANTENNA
 Satellite Communication antennas
SATCOM antenna installed on top of a/c
 TCAS ANTENNA
(traffic alert and collision avoidance system)
Required a special type of directional
antenna
Located on the top of fuselage
Has three ports for connection to a/c.
TCAS
Radiotelephone antennas
UHF antennas that Come in a wide variety of shapes
and sizes.
Installed on the bottom of a/c, because they operate
in conjunction with ground based systems that use
line of sight radio waves.
Radiotelephone antennas
 SECTION B
AUTOPILOT AND FLIGHT
DIRECTORS
 Autopilot
Purpose: to relieve the pilot by controlling the
aircraft during long periods of flight
Technicians must perform installation, inspection,
and troubleshooting of auto pilot.
Autopilot malfunction can be very serious
Types of autopilots:
Categorized according to their complexity and
number of a/c axis of rotation they control.
Autopilot utilize the same control surfaces that the
human pilot does
Types of autopilots
1- single axis
2- two axis
3- three axis.
4- automatic flight control system
5- flight management system
-------------------------------------------------------------
1- single axis: operates the ailerons only
(wing leveler)(roll axis)
2- two axis: controls both ailerons and elevators
(roll and bitch)
3- three axis: controls three primary control surfaces
(aileron (roll)-elevators (bitch)-rudder (yaw))
a/c three axis
Types of three axis autopilots
1- automatic flight control system (AFCS)
2- flight management systems (FMS)
--------------------------------------------------------------
1- AFCS: a three axis autopilot that control a/c during
climbs, descent, cruise flight, and during instrument
approaches. Also auto-throttle system that controls
engine power or thrust.
It might have auto land capability
It require many back-up systems
2- FMS(flight management system)
Latest type of autopilot, it contains additional
computer (FMC) Flight Management Computer,
FMC permit automatically an entire flight control,
from take off tell landing and rollout on runway.
It also can store different and flight profiles to
provide maximum economy of fuel consumption
 Autopilot operation
Autopilot reduce the work, strain and fatigue of controlling the a/c
during long flights(to relieve the pilot)
Autopilot parts
1- sensors or gyros: to detect a/c attitude(to give error signal)
2- amplifier or computer: process the signals coming from
sensors and send them to servos to correct attitude
3- servos: to supply the physical force necessary to move
control surfaces.
4- feedback: sends signals back to computer to indicate the
motion of control surfaces
5- controllers: unit in cockpit that contains the actuating
switches and a pitch and turn knob (supply manual-
commands to autopilot to change pitch or turn commands)
Autopilot controller
Autopilot operation
Autopilot operation
Operation of autopilot depends on the principle of
1- error sensing, 2- correction 3- follow up and command
There must be a method to determine if there is a
difference in flight condition of a/c and condition that
commanded by the pilot (sensors)
All modern autopilot use gyros(sensors) for this purpose.
Types of error signals generators:
1- attitude gyros: sense relative motion between the gyro
and its supporting system to generate error signal
2- rate gyros : sense the rate at which the a/c has departed
from the desired flight condition
System operation
How autopilot correct error signal situation?
Error signals coming from sensors(gyros) must be
amplified by 1-mechanical or 2-electrical or
3-hydraulic means.
This amplified signal is sent to servos
Servos are used to apply the necessary force or torque to
actuate the control surfaces.
Actuating the control surfaces is not enough, there must
be some means of following up these movements and
stop it at the proper time(feedback)
Ex:
When the gyro senses that the left wing is low it
commands the servo to move the left aileron
down, causing the lift wing to rise
When the gyro senses a wing level condition, it
signals the servo to stream line the aileron
-----------------------------------------------------------------
A command system is incorporated for the
autopilot to fly the a/c as the human pilot want,
this system is called flight controller.
SENSORS(gyros)
Sensors detect a/c pitch, roll, and yaw motion
The change in attitude from a selected attitude
is converted into electrical error signals and sent
to the autopilot computer.
Latest types of autopilot sensors are laser beams
gyros(RLG), two laser beams that travel in
opposite directions around a triangular
course(change in attitude will change
frequency)
Ring laser gyro
 Servos(actuators)
Purpose: supply the force needed to move the flight control
surfaces
Types of servos:
1- pneumatic servos
2- electric servos
3- electro-hydraulic servos
-----------------------------------------------------------------
1- pneumatic servos: the vacuum is directly connected to
pneumatic servos, when vacuum is applied to the servos,
a diaphragm will pull a bridle cable that will pull a control
surface
Each control axis need two servos to move
Pneumatic servos
Electrical servos
Elec. Servos with reversible Elec. Servos with a
DC motor continuously running motor
Electro-hydraulic servo
Used by air carrier jets and some large
business jets
Utilize electrical signals from autopilot
computer to direct hydraulic fluid under
pressure to a hydraulic actuator.
The actuator supplies mechanical force to the
normal linkage of the flight control system.
Electro-hydraulic servos
Ex: electro-hydraulic servos for
elevator control in the tail section
Small a/c autopilot (single axis)
called (wing leveler)(ELERON)
Three axis autopilot with electric motor
servos(use gyro and altitude sensors)
Three axis autopilot cont…….
Autopilot use radio signals from a/c
navigation radios to steer the a/c to a
desired VOR course.
Pitch, roll, and yaw servos receive
signals from computer. Which activates
the motors that move the control
surfaces according to VOR station.
 Flight management system (FMS)
This system is capable of automatically controlling the
airplane just after takeoff through roll out and after landing
flight management computer( FMC):
Purpose:
1- flight planning: programming the entire flight using
keyboard.
2- performance management: optimum profiles for climb,
descent.
3- navigation calculations: calculate great circle routs, climb
and descent
4- auto tune of VOR and DME: auto tune of radios to the
correct station
5- Autothrottle speed commands: set level of engine power
(by using thrust management computer)
Flight management computer: three independent
control computers are used, so that a failure in one
will not effect the other
Thrust management computer(TMC)
To automatically set proper thrust level for engines, to prevent
pilot from exceeding engine limitations
FLIGHT CONTROL PANEL: contains the switches for
activating various autopilot functions
CONTROL WHEEL STEERING (CWS)
It is operating mode for autopilot in addition to
command mode.
Command mode: is the normal autopilot mode where
the pilot does not touch the controls
CWS: operation mode to maintain pitch and roll
attitude existing even at time of engagement.
The human pilot is flying the a/c. but the autopilot
moving the control surfaces
If the pilot want to change attitude, light pressure is
applied to the controls, and input signal is applied to
autopilot computer.
Control wheel steering: by using
transducers
Basic operation of force transducer: AC input signal
applied to center winding then outer windings produce
the o/p signal (variable transformer).
Change in input force
will cause transducer
housing length to
increase, this change in
length will increase
magnetic strength and
so produce change in
output signal to flight
control computer
 FLIGHT DIRECTOR
A system that uses some of the basic components of
autopilot.
Like autopilot but without servos(sensors, computers)
Uses sensors to calculate a correction, which is then
displayed as command for the pilot to follow.
Primary use is for instrument approach, the pilot can
fly more accurately on ILS system, computer make
calculations to predict the optimum heading and
attitude for approach.
Also it can be used in setting the proper takeoff pitch.
Flight director fig (12-57)
SAS(Stability Augmentation System)
Used to eliminate a problem known as
Dutch roll.
It is a case of instability of a/c at high
altitudes that can result in a continuous
pitching and rolling motion
SAS will automatically make rapid rudder
movement to reduce Dutch roll.
Autopilot maintenance
Consist of:
 1-visual inspections.
 2-replacement of components.
 3-cleaning.
 4-lubricating.
 5-troubleshooting.
 6-operational checkout.
 Autopilot operational check out
Before Autopilot check, allow gyros to come into speed
1- rotate turn knob to left on controller to rotate rudder to
left( rudder turn should be smooth)
 same operation to the right
2- rotate pitch knob to up and down
3- check all controls and switches for proper and correct
operation.
4- if a/c has flight director, check for proper indication by
the commanded bars on ADI( attitude-direction- indicator)
 (SECTION C)
INSTALLATION AND
MAINTENANCE OF AVIONICS
 INSTALLATION AND MAINTENANCE
Radio and avionics equipments are very sensitive to
electromagnetic interference, which can be caused by
other nearby electrically operated devices.
Bonding jumpers are to reduce interference, also they
should be installed in good way to insure proper
operation of avionics unit.
Heat also can easily damage avionics units, so good
air circulation is required.
Also good knowledge of avionics installation is
required to ensure proper avionics performance.
All these will be covered in this suction.
 Cleaning of electronic equipment
Dust, dirt and lint can block cooling holes and cause
overheating of equipment.
Also it could cause short circuit because they could absorb
moisture
Electrical connection should be kept clean and free of
corrosion (which could increase unwanted resistance)
(Sand paper is recommended for removing corrosion)
Routing wires
All wires should be routed over fluid lines and must
be clamped securely to a/c structure.
Leave enough slack to allow for shock mounts, if
wires are tightly clamped, this could cause failure of
wires
Also equipment that cause (EMI) electromagnetic
interference should be considered when routing
wires, such as, inverters, power supplies.
 wires
Open terminal stripes clamping
 SWITCHES
Master switch: used in a manner to insure that all
electronic equipment are turned off during engine
starting or shutting down
This is because electronic equipment can be damaged
due to surge current and spikes of high voltage.
a/c switches are required to be of the snap action type
because they are good in rapid and positive opening
and closing, also when the switch is worn and ready
to fail, it will began to feel sloppy and loose in
operation
 switches
Toggle type Switch rating
Same switch can not be used on AC
and DC circuit with the same
rating.
Ex: common a/c switch is rated
10 amp. At 125-250 volt, the same
switch is rated 0.3 amp. When
used on DC circuit up to 125 volt.
If it was used on 10 amp. DC circuit it
will burn and fail quickly
Circuit breakers
Circuit breakers: should be “trip-free” type, this
means that the circuit breaker will open the circuit
regardless of the position of the control toggle or
bush button
Also they should be tested regularly
Types of circuit breakers:
1- bush to reset circuit breaker
2-bush pull circuit breaker
3-toggle type circuit breaker.
Circuit breaker
Typical circuit breaker panel for twin engine a/c
 Bonding and shielding
Improper bonding can cause radio reception interference(noise).
There are two types of interference:
1- outside interference (thunderstorms- precipitation static)
(Use static discharges)
2- inside interference (current flow in other circuits- ignition
system)(use bonding )
Types of bonding connection:
1- bonding jumpers
2- bonding straps
(All parts that could cause noise problems should be bonded)
Purpose of bonding: (to carry the ground bath current without
producing excessive voltage drop)
Always use more than one jumper
Remove dirt, grease,
Maximum resistance of bonding jumpers is o,o3 ohms
Bonding connection
Bonding jumper Bonding straps
Main functions of bonding jumpers
1- supply ground bath for current flow
2- reduce interference
3- decrease effect of lightning
4- reduce fire hazard caused by arcing near fuel tanks
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
Inspections of bonding jumpers installed on a/c:
1- they should be as short as possible
2- never solder bonding jumpers
3- never paint bonding jumpers
4- dirt and grease and paint should be removed
5- use compatible bonding(ex: aluminum)
 shielding
It can be applied to the
source of the noise such as
the ignition system
It consist of a metal outer
cover for a wire.
 This cover is connected to
ground
This will prevent the
ignition system from
effecting avionics systems
 STATIC DISGHARGES(outside interference)
Friction between the metal skin of a/c and particles in the
atmosphere could cause what is called P- static (precipitation
static) noise in aircraft radios (HF band and below)
P- static is a greater problem in higher speed a/c, so they require
many static dischargers to bleed off static charges.
Types of static dischargers:
1- static wicks (also called flexible static dischargers)
Consist of plastic tube with a fabric braid( cotton or nylon)
inside
2- wire braid dischargers (braid made from stainless steel)
 3- null field dischargers
wire braid dischargers
Static wick and static null dischargers
Installation Methods
Avionics systems are sensitive to certain types of
problems, so special procedures may be required to
prevent these problems.
Some recommendations will be described, along with
some precautions to observe.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
Conductors used to connect radios and antenna called
coaxial cable or coax.
(It consists of a center conductor covered by insulation
and outer conductor)
When inspecting coax, look for breaks or twist in the
shielding
Coaxial cable
General precautions 12-55
Special precaution to consider when installing avionics
equipments:
1- sufficient air circulations to prevent over heating.
2- adequate clearance from high temperature and
flammable materials
3- protection from water, fumes, hydraulic fluid, etc.
4- sufficient clearance to prevent rubbing
5- separate electronic equipments from inverters,
motors…..
6- ensure equipment weight does not exceed capability
of chock mounts.
Mounting racks with shock mounts
Static loads
Equipment installed in a/c must be able to withstand
acceleration forces (G)
-----------------------------------------------------------------
Using of machine screws and anchor nuts is
recommended for the removable fasteners to hold
a/c radios in place.
When radio equipments are installed in and extend
behind the instrument panel, a brace is attached to
the side or back of the equipment to minimize the
load on the instrument panel.
Brace attachment
ANTENNA installations
Antennas must be carefully installed to provide the
needed efficiency for good radio reception and
transmission
Coaxial cables and connectors:
Proper installation and maintenance of coaxial cables is
important since large signal losses can occur if a fault is
present
Coax should be routed separately from other wires to
avoid radio interference
They should be rejected if they become dented or kinked.
Support coaxial cables with clamps every two feet to
prevent damage
Coaxial cable installation
Ground plane considerations
An adequate ground plane is required for proper
operation.
When antennas are installed on metal skinned a/c, metal
plane (doublers) will supply the ground plane. A basic
rule of thump is that the ground plane should extend at a
distance equal to the height of the antenna.
It is recommended that all grease, dirt and paint be
removed from the skin area of the base of antenna.
Apply a sealant around the base of the antenna, so that
moisture can not penetrate the skin of a/c
Reinforcing doublers :installed inside the skin at
the base of antenna to increase strength
Reducing antenna interference
Certain minimum distance must separate antennas to
prevent interference for systems that operate on
similar frequencies.
The important factors that effect mutual interference
are:
1- frequency
2- wave length
3- polarization
4- type of modulation.
VHF communication antenna
a/c commonly have two to three separate VHF radios
They should be separated from each other at least 5 feet
When two VHF antennas installed on small a/c, the best
coverage is obtained with one on the top and the other
on the bottom of fuselage.
ELT antenna could cause interference with VHF antenna
and should be separated at least 5 feet.
Also if VHF antenna is installed too close to the vertical
fin of a/c it could cause blockage.
DME/TRANSPONDER ANTENNAS
Antennas used are Marconi antennas with vertical
polarization.
DME and TRANSPONDER antennas should be
separated at least 2 feet.
Installed on the bottom of a/c to prevent blockage by
fuselage.
Antennas locations