CHAPTER 11

AIRCRAFT
INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS
 SECTION A
PRINCIPLE OF
INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS
 introduction
One of the most important factors that help
in the growth of air transportation systems
is the development of flight instruments.
Poor visibility or low cloud cover, therefore,
required flying at dangerously low altitudes
or not flying at all.
On 1929, Jimmy Doolittle made the first
flight without the need to use the outside
references.
It contains artificial horizon :
give indication of pitch and roll attitude
of the airplane.
Also had altimeter :
shows a/c altitude above ground.
A radio direction finder:
which allowed him to determine his
position relative to the landing area.
Doolittle proved that blind flight was
possible.
 PRESSURE-MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Many instrument rely on measuring the

pressure of fluids such as air, fuel, and oil
It is measured by applying the fluids force
to a movable bellows.
A transducer that converts the pressure
energy directly into an electrical signal.
 PRINCIPLES OF
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
Pressure: is the force differential
between two points.
Atmospheric pressure: The force exerted
by the air that constantly surrounds us .
Created by the weight of all the air that
sits on top of the earth's surface.
The common reference for temperature
and pressure is called the International
Standard Atmosphere (ISA).
There are three basic ways for
measuring pressure:
1- absolute pressure
2- gauge pressure
3- differential pressure
 ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
 Is the measurement of pressure relative to a
total vacuum(zero pressure).
 Pressure is always a comparison between two
forces.
 Absolute pressure used on a/c in comparison
to other pressures.
 An aneroid wafer is used to measure absolute
pressure.
 It is consist of an enclosed chamber made
from thin sheet metal
 pressure can be measured in:
1- inches of mercury.
2- hectoPascals.
3- pounds per square inch (psi).
 HectoPascals (hP a) is the modern term for an
older measurement called "millibars.“
 Under standard day conditions, atmospheric
pressure that equals
 1- 29.92 inches of mercury .
 2-1013.2 hPa .
 3- 14.7 psi.
The aneroid wafer measures the
difference in pressure between the
vacuum inside a sealed chamber
and the ambient pressure around it.
 Expansion and contraction of the
pressure capsule or chamber
mechanically moves a needle on a
gauge.
 GAUGE PRESSURE
• It is the difference between atmospheric pressure and
the pressure being measured.
• The bellows-type aneroid wafer is type of gauge
pressure, measures the difference between the
pressure inside the bellows and the pressure outside
the bellows.
• Bourdon tube-type is used to measure high pressure.
(It consist of a hollow brass or bronze elliptical-shaped
tube formed into a semi circle).
Gauge pressure
 Differential pressure
 Is the comparison between two pressures.
 the most common indicator found on aircraft is the
airspeed indicator(pitot-static instrument).
 It measures the difference between the ram air(pitot)
and the ambient air (static) pressure

 Ram air: created by a/c forward motion

 Static : the atmospheric pressure outside the aircraft.

SPECIAL PRESSURE INSTRUMENTS
1- Manifold pressure gauges (gives the amount
of power engine is producing)
2- Engine pressure ratio (EPR)
3- Pressure switches (to react to a given
pressure by activating warning lights)
4- Altimeters
5- Airspeed indicator
6- Mach meters
7- Vertical speed indicator.
1-MANIFOLD PRESSURE GAUGE (MAP)
 The absolute pressure inside the induction
system of an engine is an important indicator
of the power the engine is developing.
 This manifold pressure is not directly
proportional to horsepower, it is related
qualitatively.
 The maximum differential between manifold
pressure and atmospheric pressure will occur
when the engine is at idle.
 The manifold pressure gauge gives the pilot an
approximation of the power the engine Is
producing.
 The manifold pressure gauge usually has a
range from 10 to 40 inches of mercury.
manifold pressure gauge
2-ENGINE PRESSURE RATIO INDICATOR (EPR)
 This is measured with a differential pressure
gauge that senses the pressure difference
between the tail pipe total pressure, usually
abbreviated as Pt7, and the compressor inlet
total pressure, or Pt2.
3-PRESSURE SWITCHES
 A pressure switch is simply a microswitch
activated by the movement of a bellows under
the pressure applied by a fluid.
 4-ALTIMETERS
Is a barometer that measures the
absolute pressure of the air.
As the A/C climbs, less atmosphere
above the A/C and the absolute
pressure decrease.
The instrument is calibrated to indicate
higher altitude with the decrease of
pressure and is usually referenced to sea
level.
It is one of the oldest flight instruments.
As the air circulates above the earth's
surface, the pressure at a given location
and altitude changes.
For this reason, an aircraft altimeter can
be adjusted to indicate the correct
altitude for a given sea-level pressure.
In early airplanes it was made from
evacuated bellows in which expansion
and retraction were measured by gears
and levers, the dial was calibrated in feet.
The dial could be rotated so the
instrument reads zero when the aircraft
was on ground.
This form of operation was for flights
that had little need for accurate altitude
information.
The pilot needs to be able to quickly read
the altitude within a few feet.
 This requirement is complicated by a
pressure lapse rate (the decrease in
pressure with altitude) that is not linear.
 The pressure change for each thousand(1000)
feet is greater in the lower altitudes than it is
in the higher altitudes.
 For this reason, bellows are designed with
corrugations that allow linear expansion with
a change in altitude, rather than a change in
pressure
 The barometric window is an opening in the
face of the instrument through which a scale,
calibrated in either inches of mercury, or
millibars, is visible.
 A knob on the instrument case, usually located
at the seven o'clock position, rotates the scale.
 This allows the instrument reading to be
corrected for variations in atmospheric
pressure.
 Airport control towers and air traffic control
sites along a flight route give the pilot the
altimeter setting, corrected to sea level, for
their local barometric pressure.
 Types of altimeters
1- sensitive altimeter
- (All sensitive altimeters have three pointers)
- Long pointer indicates hundreds of feet
- Short, fat pointer indicates thousands of feet
- Third pointer, smaller pointer is geared to
indicate tens of thousands of feet.
1-sensitive altimeter
Modern altimeters are much easier to
read and the chance of misreading is
reduced.
It contains a drum scale with a single
pointer
The drum indicates thousands of feet,
while the pointer indicates hundreds of
feet.
2-A drum readout of altitude makes the altimeter easier to read.
 3- Encoding altimeters
 An electronic pressure sensor that sends a digital
code to A/C transponder.
 When the transponder replies to an interrogation
from ATC(AIR TRAFFIC CONTROLER), it sends
altitude data, which appears on the radar screen as
a numerical readout.
 Position error is inherent with static systems,
because the static port is often in disturbed air.
 The error varies with aircraft design, airspeed
and altitude.
 The servo altimeter utilizes a built-in
compensation system, tailoring the instrument
to the particular aircraft and minimizing this
error for the full range of flight speeds and
altitudes
 4- radio(radar) altimeter
Displays the aircraft's altitude as measured by
a radio signal, instead of by atmospheric
pressure.
 It sends a high-frequency signal toward the
ground, which is reflected back to the aircraft's
radio altimeter receiver.
 Typically, this instrument is used at altitudes
within 2,500 feet of the ground, and provides a
digital display of the aircraft's absolute altitude
above ground level (AGL).
 Altimeter tests
FAR 91.411 requires that all a/c
static pressure, including all
altimeters to be inspected every 24
months.
Inspection conducted by a/c
manufacturer or a proved repair
station.
 AIRSPEED INDICATORS
 Airspeed indicator measures the differential
pressure between pitot (ram air) pressure and
static (ambient) pressure.
 Consist of airtight case vented to the static
pressure and a thin metal diaphragm vented
to the pitot air source.
 The diaphragm expands in proportion to the
pressure difference between the pitot and
static air pressure sources.
The diaphragm is linked to a pointer on
the instrument face
Accuracy of the airspeed indicator
depends on the correct operation of the
pitot-static system.
As the differential pressure changes, the
diaphragm expands or contracts, causing
the pointer to indicate changes in
airspeed.
Types of airspeed indicators
1-Uncorrected or direct reading
airspeed indicators .
2-True airspeed indicators.
3-Maximum allowable airspeed
indicators.
 Indicated airspeed indicator
 Uncorrected or direct reading of an airspeed
indicator is called indicated airspeed.
 Impossible to find a location for the static port that
is entirely free from airflow distortion that produces
errors in airspeed indication.
 Flight test is conducted to a trailing static pickup
with no airflow disturbance is called calibrated
airspeed .
 A calibration card in the a/c can be used to calculate
calibrated airspeed from indicated airspeed.
The pilot needs to know the Calibrated
airspeed as it is related to a/c stall speed,
but it is not useful for calculating the
time needed to fly from one location to
another
To create a useful flight plan, pilot must
convert calibrated airspeed to true
airspeed
Under non-standard conditions, the
pilot can convert true airspeed into
calibrated airspeed by entering the
non-standard pressure and
temperature into a circular slide rule
or electronic flight computer.
Many airspeed indicators have a
movable dial that a pilot can adjust
to provide a true airspeed
 True airspeed indicators
True airspeed indicators internally
corrects indicated airspeed to true
airspeed using a temperature sensor
and altitude bellows.
This relieves the pilot from computing
true airspeed.
True Airspeed Indicators
 MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE AIRSPEED
INDICATORS
A/C with max. speeds that are limited to
structural considerations have a red radial
line on the dial of air speed indicator.
The fixed red line is replaced by a
movable red pointer or red and white
barber pole that is driven by an altimeter
bellows.
When a/c flies near the speed of sound,
parts of the airframe will experience
airflow greater than the speed of sound
If the A/C is not designed to fly at
supersonic airflow, destructive shock
waves and loss of control can occur.
These A/C must never allowed to reach
their critical mach number.
The speed of sound decreases as altitude
increases due to the lower air temperature.
 Machmeter
 Aircrafts that operate at supersonic speeds
needs a machmeter to measure a/c speed
relative to the speed of sound since the mach
number varies with altitude.
Ex:
 Machmeter indications are:
 Mach 0.75 75 percent to the speed of
sound
 Mach 1.0 speed of sound.
 Mach 1.25  125 percent to the speed of
sound
Machmeter
Combination Airspeed Indicator
 A combination airspeed indicator combines
the airspeed indicator with a Machmeter.
 Also shows the maximum allowable operating
airspeed.
 Small indicators (sometimes called "bugs")
may appear around the periphery of the dial.
 The pilot can set these bugs to indicate the
correct speed for certain flight conditions,
such as during takeoff or during approach to
landing.
A combination airspeed indicator indicates airspeed,
Mach, and maximum allowable airspeed
VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR VSI (rate
of climb indicator)
Helps a pilot establish rate of climb
or descent at a specified altitude at
a given time.
The indicator contains a pressure
capsule connected to the static
source vented inside the instrument
case through a diffuser.
When a/c climbs, pressure inside the
capsule decreases causing the capsule
to compress, the levers and gears move
the pointers to indicate climb.
When the a/c levels off, the pressure
inside the case and inside the capsule
equalizes, and the indicator shows a
zero rate of change
A vertical speed indicator measures the rate of change
of static pressure and indicates the result as a rate of
climb or descent.
 Instantaneous vertical speed indicator
 VSI indications lags behind the actual pressure
change.
 This instrument was developed to correct this
deficiency.
 The same as the VSI but it contains a dashpot that
pumps air across the capsule.
 When a/c descent, the dashpot piston moves
upward, this will increase the pressure inside the
capsule and lowers the pressure inside the case.
 Which cause an immediate indication of a descent.
 instantaneous vertical speed indicator incorporates
accelerometers to help the instrument immediately
indicate changes in vertical speed.
Temperature-measuring(Delta-T) instruments

All temperature indicators measure the amount

of temperature increase or decrease, which
occurs in a material being measured.
This change in temperature, known as Delta T.
Two types: electrical and non electrical
instruments
1- non-electrical: depends on expansion and
contraction of liquids, solids, or gases.
2- electrical: measures the change in resistance
due to change in temperature
 Non-electrical temperature instruments

• 1- liquid expansion:
• Breakable glass tube filled with mercury or alcohol, when
temperature increase liquid expands , it is bushed up in the
tube where its height can be measured on a linear scale next
to the tube( medical thermometer).

• 2- solids expansion:
• A bimetallic strip, made from two metals (brass-iron) with
two different expansion coefficients (thermocouple).
• Brass expands twice the iron, this action causes deflection of
a needle, that indicates temperature on a circular scale.
Non-electrical temp. inst. Cont…
3- GAS expansion:
 Consist of a liquid-filled temperature bulb
connected to a capillary tube which is connected
to a bourdon tube.
 When the liquid bulb is subjected to high
temperature, liquid vaporizes.
 The vapor acts through the capillary tube and
produces a higher pressure in the bourdon tube.
 The bourdon tube straightens to move a pointer
a cross a calibrated pointer scale.
Figure 11-22. Expanding gases cause the Bourdon
tube to straighten, indicating a temperature increase.
 Electrical temperature indicators
 Temperature can be determined electrically
either by measuring resistance or voltage and
use the result to move an electrical temperature
indicator.
 Resistance instruments measure the change in
resistance when temperature-sensing bulb is
subjected to heat.
 Voltage instruments measure voltage produced
when certain metals are subjected to
heat(thermocouple)
 Resistance instruments
 Made from a fine nickel-wire coil placed into the end
of temperature-sensing bulb
 As the bulb heated as the resistance of the nickel wire
increases in proportion to the change in temperature,
moving an electrical indicator.
 The wire is connected to a Wheatstone bridge
that contains three resistors with the temperature
probe, formed into with the temperature indicator
 Current flows through the indicator changes, when one
of the legs of the bridge is varied
 (In this case when the nickel wire is subjected to
temperature change)
 The resistance of R4 increases with higher temperature,
causing Increased current flow through the temperature
Indicator.
 Resistance instrument
 More accurate means of monitoring resistance is
by using a ratiometer.
 when the temperature(bulb resistance) is low,
most of the current flows through the low-end coil
bulb, when temperature(bulb resistance) is high,
more current flows through the high-end coil
 The pointer is mounted on a small permanent
magnet, that aligns it self with the magnetic field
produced by the low-high end coil
The ratiometer is more accurate than the Wheatstone bridge
because It compares ratios, which eliminates indicator errors
due to small changes in source voltage.
 thermocouple instruments
 Used to measure high temperature
 Work in the principle that, when certain
dissimilar metals produce voltage when
subjected to heat.
 The thermocouple is connected to a sensitive
voltmeter with a scale calibrated in degrees
 Common applications: exhaust gas
temperature, cylinder head temperature, and
turbine inlet temperatures
 Dissimilar metals are made from(iron &
constantan) or (chromel & alumel)
MECHANICAL MOVEMENT MEASURMENT

• Three types:
1- accelerometers
2- tachometers
3- synchroscopes
 ACCELEROMETERS(G- meter)
 Measure forces on the airframe.
 Used to measure severe aerodynamic loads
experience by a/c so the pilot can determine when
the aircraft is approaching its design limit factor.
 Made from a weight suspended on two guide
shafts, centered by a spring loaded control cord.
 Three pointers attached to a pulley driven by the
control cord.
 When the a/c pitches up or down, the weight
rides up or down on the guide shafts.
 This movement turns the pulley and moves
one main and two auxiliary pointers.
 The main pointer indicates the load factor at
that movement, as for other pointers, one
indicates the maximum +ve G force, while the
other indicates maximum –ve G force.
 The auxiliary pointers have ratchet
mechanisms that hold them at the farthest
point of their movement.
An accelerometer indicates the present G force acting
on the aircraft, plus the maximum negative and positive
Gs experienced since the accelerometer was last reset.
 SYNCHROSCOPES
 An instrument that helps the pilot of twin engine a/c to
synchronize the r.p.m of the propellers.
 It is made from a small rotating disc that turns toward the
left indicating that the left engine is faster, and when
turns to the right to indicate that the right engine is faster
 If the engines are turning at the same speed, the o/p
voltage from both tachometer generators is equal.
 If one engine is faster, a differential voltage is applied to
the synchroscope indicator, causing the indicator to
rotate.
 TACHOMETERS
 A mechanical or electrical instrument that
displays engine r.p.m.
 It helps the pilot to determine how much power
an engine is producing at a given throttle setting,
and to insure that the engine is operating within
its limits
 It is color coded to indicate the limits
 Red indicates the max r.p.m allowed
 Green indicates the normal operating range
 Occasionally, yellow range may be included
indicating a cautionary range
The tachometer is a primary engine instrument. A
typical tachometer instrument face is calibrated in
hundreds of r.p.m. and has a green arc and red radial
line.
 GYROSCOPIC INSTRUMENTS
A name that translated from Greek means "to
view the earth's rotation."
Made the possibility of flying the a/c without
outside visual reference.
Gyro is simply a rotating mass
During its rotation it possesses two
characteristics
1- rigidity in space
2- precession(precedes)
When spun rapidly, it remains in a fixed
position.
When a set of gimbals installed a round the
gyro.
The gyro is able to rotate freely even though
the gimbals are
1-Tilted.
2-Twisted.
3-Otherwise moved.
The gyro remains in the plane in which it was
originally spinning.
 Regardless of the position of its base, a gyroscope tends to
remain rigid in space, with its axis of rotation pointed in a
constant direction. A gyroscope's rigidity in space makes it
useful for determining the attitude of an aircraft and the
direction the aircraft is pointing.
Gyroscopic precession can be observed with any rotating mass. In
this figure, a rotating bicycle wheel is placed on a gimbal. When a
force is applied to the wheel while it is rotating, the effect of the force
will cause the wheel to pivot, or process, around the gimbal in a
horizon­tal direction.
 Gyroscopic instrument
First indicator was first employed on a/c
was the turn and bank indicator in 1918.
Followed by gyrocompass(heading)
indicator and artificial horizon indicator.
- Gyrocompass (heading) indicator:
indicates an aircraft's heading relative to
a fixed horizontal reference such as
magnetic north.
Artificial horizon:
indicates an aircraft's attitude
relative to the earth's horizon.
A turn indicator
is an example of a rate gyro which
measure the rate of rotation about
an aircraft's vertical axis.
 Heading indicator
(gyro compass, directional
gyro D.G)
 Gyroscope rigidity in space can be used to display
a stable indication of a/c heading.
 Since gyroscope has no north seeking tendency, it
must be set to agree with mag. Compass during
times when the mag. Compass is providing a stable
indication
 Early heading indicators resembled
magnetic compass, in that it indicate
heading on a drum type card which
could be viewed through a window.
One problem with this instrument is
the excessive friction in the gimbals,
so the heading had to be reset
frequently to keep the instrument
agreeing with the magnetic compass.
Operation:
 The gyro rotor suspended in a double gimbals.
 The rotor spin by air directed into its periphery.
 When pushing the caging knob the rotor is leveled
and the gimbals are locked.
 The knob could then be rotated and bring the
desired heading under the reference mark
(lubber line).
 Pulling the knob out, un locked the gimbals so the
rotor could maintain its position in space while a/c
turned a bout the gyro.
Early heading indicators indicated heading on a
drum-type card which could be viewed through
a window.
The dial of a drum-type heading indicator is marked
opposite the way a pilot would normally visualize a
change in heading.
 To provide more intuitive heading indications
the vertical card compass was invented.
 Instead of a simple lubber line in front of the
card this instrument has an airplane symbol
on its face in the center of the dial.
 The airplane nose points up representing
straight ahead.
 The circular dial is connected to the gyro
mechanism which remains pointing in one
horizontal direction when the gyro is spinning
 Modern heading indicators use a vertical compass
card connected to the gyro gimbal by a series of gears.
 ATIITUDE INDICATOR
The attitude indicator, or artificial
horizon , gyro horizon is a mechanical
substitute for the natural horizon.
Substitute for the natural horizon
 The heart of this instrument is a heavy
brass rotor that spins in the horizontal
plane.
Mounted on dual gimbals that allow it to
remain in that plane regardless of aircraft
movement.
 Before the gyro can spin in the horizontal plane, it
must erect itself.
 While the aircraft is taxiing, gravity provides the force
to level the gyro.
 On a vacuum-driven attitude indicator, this is
accomplished through the action of pendulous vane
 The gyro in the attitude indicator spins in the
horizontal plane, two mounting or gimbals, allow the
gyro to tilt freely in the pitch and roll planes.
 Due to rigidity in space, the gyro remains in a fixed
position relative to the horizon as the case and
airplane rotate a round it.
The gyro in the attitude indicator spins in the horizontal plane. Two
mountings, or gimbals, allow the gyro to tilt freely in the pitch and roll
planes. Due to rigidity in space, the gyro remains in a fixed position
relative to the horizon as the case and airplane rotate around it.
 The bar indicates 'the attitude of the gyro and
therefore the position of the earth's horizon.
 A symbol indicating the wings of the airplane is
mounted inside the instrument case to show
the relationship between the airplane and the
horizon.
 These instruments use a two-color movable
dial.
 Above the horizon the dial is a light color
usually blue to represent the sky.
 Below the horizon it is a dark color usually
brown or black to represent the ground.
Modern attitude indicators do not need caging mechanisms,
and have the ability to be quickly erected. They are clearly
marked with pitch and bank reference marks, and with a
horizon card that resembles an actual horizon.
Many of the newer attitude
indicators on larger airplanes use
electric motors to spin their gyros.
 However on light airplanes the
attitude and heading indicators
typically are vacuum powered while
the turn indicator is electric.
 Attitude director indicator (ADI)
 Steering commands (visual cues) provided by the
flight director to allow the pilot to fly the a/c more
precisely.
 The pilot received the same information as the
autopilot and can manually fly the a/c the same way
the servos do when the autopilot is engaged.
 It is similar to the normal attitude director except
that it has command bars driven by the flight
computer.
 When the pilot complies with flight director
command to fly straight and level the
command bars are aligned with the wing tips
of a symbolic a/c
 When the flight director commands climb, the
command bars move up, so the pilot must
raise the nose of a/c up until the bars are lined
up by a/c wing tip
 The command bars can move to command a
climb, a descent, and turn or any combination
of these maneuvers.
One popular flight director uses a pair of
narrow wedge command bars and a delta
or flattened triangle to represent the
airplane.
 The command bars can command pitch
or roll maneuvers or both
simultaneously.
 To respond the pilot maneuvers the
airplane so as to fly the delta into the V
formed by the command bars.
The attitude director indicator is similar to a normal attitude gyro
except that it includes command guidance bars that are
controlled by the flight director system.
The two narrow wedges on this flight director provide pitch and
roll information to the pilot. The pilot maneuvers the airplane to
"fly" the delta-shaped airplane symbol into the V of the
command bars.
 TURN INDICATORS
 It is used to measure the rate of rotation of an aircraft
about its vertical axis
two types:
1- turn & slip indicator(yaw), one gimbals .
2- turn coordinator(roll and yaw).
 The basic difference between the turn indicator and
attitude and heading indicator is in the mounting of gyro it
self(it moves in only one axis because it has only one
gimbal).
 Turn & slip indicator was the first blind flight instrument
invented
 It was known as “needle and ball” and turn and
bank indicator
 As for turn coordinator, it has additional advantage
of being able to sense roll as well as yaw .It can do
this because of the way the gyro is canted.
 This capability make it more useful in backing up the
bank information provided by the attitude indicator
 The position of the ball indicates whether a pilot is
using the correct angle of bank for the rate of turn.
 By measuring the balance between the pull of
gravity and centrifugal force caused by the turn.
 by measuring the balance between the pull of
gravity and centrifugal force caused by the
turn.
 In a slip the rate of turn is too slow for the
angle of bank, and the ball falls to the inside of
the turn.
 In a skid the rate of turn is too great for the
angle of bank, and the ball is pulled to the
outside of the turn.
 The pilot applies rudder pressure on the side
the ball is deflected
 DIRECT-INDICATING
INSTRUMENTS
 Navigational maps and charts are based on a
grid system of latitude and longitude, with the
geographic north and south poles and the
equator being the references for this grid.
 In order to fly from one location to another,
the pilot must have an instrument that will
maintain a constant relationship with north
and south poles.
The device the pilots have relied on for
this purpose is called the magnetic
compass
Limitation of the compass is that it
measures direction relative to magnetic
pole, not geographic north& south (the
axis for the earth rotation(true north &
south))
However, it is an effective navigation tool
(except near the magnetic north pole)
 Magnetic compass
 The main body is a cast aluminum housing
with a glass lens.
 A vertical reference mark called a lubber line
is painted across the lens.
 The compass card graduated in 360 degrees.
 0 or 360 degrees corresponds to north, 90
east, 180 south, 270 west.
 Two small bar-type magnets are soldered to
the bottom of the float aligned with north and
south.
 The housing is filled with fluid made from
hydrocarbon similar to kerosene but with
additives to keep it clear.
 The housing must be completely full, and with
no bubbles.
 To prevent damage to the housing when fluid
expands due to heat, diaphragm or bellows
are mounted inside the housing.
 VARIATION
 Variation: is the angular difference between
the true and magnetic poles at a given point.
 A/C compass is oriented to magnetic north,
but most aviation chart is oriented to true
north.
 So the pilots must convert the true direction
to the magnetic direction
 The amount of variation a pilot needs to apply
depends upon the a/c location on the earth
surface
 DEVIATION
 Disturbances from magnetic fields caused by
metals and electrical accessories within the a/c
that cause compass error.
 Magnetos, alternators, and generators, have
strong magnetic fields which are close to the
compass can cause the compass to give errors
 Also the electrical wires that is used to light the
compass can cause electrical interference.
 To minimize this, the wire is made from twisted
two wires instead of single wire
 Inside the compass housing, two small
magnets are installed, can be adjusted to
cancel the effect of most of the local
magnetic fields in the a/c (swinging the
compass).
 The remaining error is recorded on a chart,
called compass correction card, which is
mounted near the compass.
 When the pilot reports that the compass is
inaccurate a technician must perform a
compass swing(covered in sec. b)
When swinging the compass, the technician adjusts the compensator
magnets to minimize deviation. Any remaining error is recorded on the
compass correction card.
 Remote indicating compass
 Was developed to reduce compass errors due
to electrical circuit found in the instrument
panel.
 This system uses a remotely mounted
compass transmitter located in an area least
likely to be subject to stray magnetism.
 The rear of the fuselage the wing tips and the
vertical stabilizer are common locations.
 The remote compass transmitter is electrically
connected to the magnetic indicator located on
the instrument panel.
 This is called a synchro-type or Magnesyn-type
remote indicating system.
 It is used to transmit the action of the compass
to the needle of the indicator.
 SLAVED GYRO COMPASS
 A heading indicator, combined with direction
sensing instrumentation overcomes the limitations
of either:
1- a conventional magnetic compass .
2- a gyroscopic heading indicator without
directional input.
 The resulting instrument is called a slaved gyro.
 A flux gate or flux valve picks up an induced
voltage from the earth's magnetic field and
after processing it directs it to a slaving torque
motor in the instrument.
 This motor precesses the gyro rotating the dial
until the airplane's magnetic heading is under
the lubber line on the face of the instrument.
 A horizontal situation indicator (HSI) combines
the slaved heading indicator with a VOR and
glide slope indicator.
 This provides a navigation display that is easy
for a pilot to interpret.
Warning flags (NAV, HDG, or GS) warn
the pilot whenever the navigation or
compass system become inoperative.
A radio magnetic indicator (RMI)
combines a slaved heading indicator with
one or more needles.
 This simplifies a pilot's calculation of
bearings to and from radio beacons
and/or VOR stations.
INSTRUMENT PNUMATIC SYSTEMS
 All of the early gyro instruments were
powered by a jet air flowing over buckets cut
into the periphery of the gyro rotor
Methods of air flowing:
1- VENTURI SYSTEM
2- VACUUM PUMPS SYSTEMS
 VENTURI SYSTEMS
 Used on early A/C.
 Mounted on the output of the A/C
 It produces a low pressure or vacuum that pulls air
through the instruments.
 Primary advantage they are simple and does not
require power from the engine or electrical System.
Disadvantage:
1-It is easily effected by ice.
2-Can become unusable at a time when the instrument
are mostly needed also it is not yet operating until
a/c is flying .
3-Drag during flight.
 VENTURI systems
There are two sizes of venturi tubes:
1) 4 inch of mercury.
2) 2 inch of mercury.
---------------------------------------------
1) 4 inch used to drive the attitude and
heading indicators.
2) 2 inch used for turn and slip indicators
 Vacuum pumps
Made to overcome venture problems
with ice.
Made from vacuum pumps driven by the
engines.
They create suction that pulls air through
the instrument to drive the gyro rotor.
A suction relief valve is used to maintain
the desired pressure.
 Types of vacuum pumps
The early vane type pumps are called wet
type pumps engine oil inters the pumps to
provide sealing lubrication and cooling.
Modern vacuum pumps are dry type they do
not require oil for lubrication since they utilize
self lubrication carbon vanes they lubricate
the pump as they wear at a predetermined
rate.
However it is essential to keep the dry
pump perfectly clean solid particles
drawn can break off the carbon vanes
and then destroy the pump
So filters are installed to prevent
particles from entering the system.
This filter must be cleaned or replaced at
intervals recommended by the
manufacturer
 Wet-type vacuum pumps require oil separators to recover oil
that is used for lubrication and sealing in the pump. Pressurized
air from the output side of the pump, with oil removed, is often
used to Inflate de-icing boots.
Dry-type vacuum pumps require no lubricatlning oil. However
they cannot tolerate dirt or other particles, because any grit
will quickly damage the graphite vanes.
 Suction relief valves
 Vacuum powered instrument requires special
amount suction this is controlled with pressure
regulator mounted between the pump and the
instrument.
 The relief valve allows cabin air to bypass the
instruments and enter the pump directly.
 If the pump is delivering too much suction the
relief valve opens and this maintains the correct
negative pressure inside the instrument case.
This suction relief valve has a removable foam filter.
 FILTERS
 The life of an air-driven instrument is effected by
the cleanliness of the air flowing over the rotor.
 Some times air is drown from places where are
dust and tobacco smoke.
 Unless all solid contaminations are removed it well
cause the rotor to slow and cause inaccuracy in the
instrument and shortens its service life.
 This is why all filters must be replaced on a
scheduled intervals according to a/c manufacturer.
 All particles can damage the rotors in gyros. An air filter
ensures that only clean air reaches these instruments.
Vacuum system filters must be changed regularly to
protect the dry type vacuum pumps and gyro
Instruments
 INSTRUMENT SYSTEM SERVICING
 Under the Federal Aviation Regulations an
aircraft technician has very limited authority to
repair instruments.
 Must be performed at an authorized repair
station.
 Technicians often replace filters troubleshoot
and replace defective instruments and replace
vacuum pumps.
 The plumbing to and from the various
instruments often requires inspection and repair.
 POSITIVE PRESSURE SYSTEMS
 As an aircraft climbs above 18,000 feet MSL
vacuum pumps can't draw enough air through
the system to provide sufficient rotor speed.
 To remedy this problem many aircraft that fly
at high altitude use positive pressure systems
to drive the gyros.
 These systems use the same type of air pump
as vacuum systems except that the pump is
upstream rather than downstream of the
instruments.
 PITOT-STATIC SYSTEM
 Pitot-static system consist of: pitot tube, port, and
associated plumbing.
 Pitot pressure is ram air picked up open ended pitot
tube(1/4 inch diameter) facing the incoming air
stream, as the speed of the a/c increases as the air
entering the tube increases
 Static pressure is the pressure of the still or ambient
air surrounding the a/c
 Ambient air pressure is taken from a static port at a
location that has a minimum disturbance to the air
pressure
 To prevent ice inside the pitot head a/c are
equipped with electric heaters
 If water collect inside the pitot line the
airspeed indicator may oscillate due to water
moves back and forth in the line which can
result in an accurate reading.
 Static system test every 24 month and any
time the system is opened for service and
repair
The pitot tube is mounted on the outside of the aircraft where
it can pick up air flowing past the aircraft. As the speed of the
air Increases, the pressure inside the closed pitot system also
increases.
Static ports are typically mounted flush on
the exterior of the aircraft.
Large Jet transport aIrplanes normally
contain multiple pitot static systems.
A heating element is used to prevent the
formation of Ice In a pitot tube.
Some aircraft are equipped with a blade probe with a
pitot tube in front and a static port in the bottom.
 Static pressure is provided for the airspeed indicator(s),
altimeter, and vertical speed indicator. Some aircraft may also
have static pressure routed to a cabin altimeter, standby
altimeter or a separate altitude encoder.
The alternate air valve is located where the pilot can
select an alternate static air source if the primary
source becomes plugged.
 STATIC SYSTEM TESTING
 FAR 91.411 requires that the static system be checked every
24 calendar months on aircraft that are flown under
instrument flight rules (IFR).
FAR 43, Appendix E requires the following:
1-The static system must be free of entrapped moisture and
restrictions.  
2-The leak check to be within established tolerances.  
3-The static port heater, if installed, must be operative.  
4-The technician must ensure that no alterations or
deformations of the airframe surface have been made that
would affect the relationship between air pressure in the
static pressure system and true ambient static air pressure for
any flight condition.
 FUEL QUANTITY INDICATING
SYSTEM
Gauges or systems may be as simple as a wire
attached to a cork float.
 The amount of wire protruding from the cap
indicates the amount of fuel in the tank.
Types of fuel quantity indicators:
1- mechanical indicators
2- DC electrical indicators
3- capacitance fuel quantity systems
1- mechanical indicators:
 A float rides on the top of the fuel when fuel
quantity change the float rotates a horseshoe
shaped permanent magnet through a bevel
gear a pointer attached to a permanent
magnet coupled to the horseshoe magnet.
 As the permanent magnet rotates as the
pointer moves to show the fuel quantity.
 2-DC electrical indicators
It converts the mechanical motion of the float
into a varying direct current.
This current then drives a mechanical
indicator or converted to a digital readout.
The tank unit consist of a wire wound resistor.
 A wiper arm driven by the float moves a cross
this resistance material.
 Changing the circuit resistance.
 As the resistance in the tank varies so does the
current in coil B which varies its magnetic
strength.
 The pointer is mounted on a small permanent
magnet and moves a cross the dial in such a
way that indicates the level of fuel in the tank.
 Most indicators are a ratiometer-type gauge to
minimize errors caused by variations in system
voltage.
 Current flows through both coils the fixed
resistor and the tank unit.
 3-Capacitance fuel quantity systems
 Any modern a/c use capacitance-type fuel quantity
 This is an electronic system that measures the
capacitance of the probes that serve as the tank
sender unit.
 The capacitor consist of two conductive plate the
stores current.
 The a mount of charge a capacitor can store
depends on the area of the plates, the separation
between them and the dielectric of the material
between the plates.
 In the fuel tank, every thing is fixed, the only
variable is the material that separates them.
 When the tank is empty, the plates are
separated by air that has a dielectric constant
of one.
 When the tank is full the dielectric is fuel that
has a constant of two.
 So the capacitance of the probe varies
according to the level of fuel inside the tank.
 They provide an accurate indication of the
mass of the fuel in the tanks which more
accurately reflects the available energy in the
fuel than its volume.
 Fuel density can change due to variations in
temperature or due to substitution of a
different grade of jet fuel.
 The capacitive probes sense this because
denser fuel has a higher dielectric constant
which increases the measured fuel quantity at
a given volume.
 To accomplish this a compensator is built into
the bottom of one of the tank units.
 It is electrically in parallel with the probes
which cancels the changes in dielectric constant
caused by changes in fuel temperature.
 Most capacitance-type systems have a test
feature.
 Actuating the test switch causes the gauges to
drive towards Zero or Empty.
 When the switch is released, the pointer(s)
should promptly return to the original quantity
indication.
Troubleshooting a capacitance-type fuel-
quantity indicating system is quite
simple.
 Following the appropriate instructions
connect a test unit into the system.
The testing unit may also provide a
technician with the capability to calibrate
the system following troubleshooting
and/or repairs.  
FUEL SYSTEM MONITORING INSTRUMENTS

1- fuel pressure indicators.

2- fuel injection system flowmeter .
3- volume flow measurement.
4- mass flow measurement.
 1- fuel pressure indicators
They are used to determine how much to
prime the engine.
Fuel pressure is monitored to many a/c
for starting and to check system
operation during flight.
Pressure is measured in pounds per
square inch(psi) using Bourdon tube type
instrument.
2- fuel injection system flowmeter
 Used to monitor fuel consumption and engine
performance.
 By using a simple flowmeter operates on the
principle that the pressure drops across a fixed
orifice is directly proportional to the flow
through the orifice.
 It is calibrated in pounds, or gallons, of fuel
per hour.
 One problem with this type of flow measuring
instrument is that if the orifice partially clogs
the pressure drop across it increases.
 3-Volume flow measurement
 A flowmeter measures the amount of a fluid
passing a given point by measuring the
revolutions of a calibrated vane.
 A movable vane unit in series with the fuel
line to the engine.
 It measures the amount of fluid passing a
given point by measuring the revaluations of
a calibrated vane.
 This movement is sent to the flow indicator via
an Autosyn transmitters.
A flowmeter measures the amount of a fluid passing a
given point by measuring the revolutions of
a calibrated vane.
 4- mass flow measurement
 Works on the principle that the viscosity of the
fuel changes with the mass of the fuel.
 The system is made from a turbine placed in
the line with a motor that swirls the fuel.
 The viscosity of fuel will determine the force
placed on the turbine.
 The turbine is connected to an AC system
which transmits fuel flow information to the
indicator on the instrument panel.
 This system is the most accurate although it is
the most complicated.
 ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS
(Glass Cockpit)
Electronic Flight Instruments Systems(EFIS).
A dvantages:
1-Increase reliability.
2- Reduce maintenance cost.
3- Reduce instrument panel clutter.
4- Reduce workload.
 Old instrument containing gyros, delicate
bearing, hairsprings, have been replaced with
electronic solid-state devices.
 They contain no moving parts and boast of
greater reliability and higher time between
failures.
 Electronic instruments that make up
full glass cockpit:
1- EFIS(Electronic Flight Instrument Systems)
2- EADI(Electronic Attitude Director Indicator)
3- EHSI(Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator)
 This two tube EFIS display is set up to display attitude information on
one tube, and navigation information on the other.
A typical EFIS system consists of:
 four interchangeable CRT displays and their
associated symbol generators.
 The center symbol generator is used as a
redundancy check between the left and right
systems.
 If one or more of the units fail the other(s) will
control the electronic displays.
 The symbol generator receives signals from the
various instruments and navigational sensors
located throughout the aircraft.
A typical EFIS system has signal generators for the pilot and
copilot sides of the cockpit and a central signal generator that
acts as a control in case of disagreement between the other
two.
 The signals sent to the various components of
the systems are typically linked through a
digital data bus.
 A data bus is made up of a twisted pair of
insulated wires surrounded by an outer
shielding.
 The electrical signals sent through the data
bus consist of short pulses of voltage on or
voltage off (binary ones and zeroes).
 One common bus system is known as ARINC
429. ARINC stands for Aeronautical Radio
Incorporated and 429 is a code for a specific
digital data standard
The ARINC 429 data bus system Is one way that digital
components can communicate with each other.
 ELECTRONIC ATTITUDE DIRECTOR
INDICATOR (EADI)
The electronic attitude director indicator
like its mechanical predecessor displays
much of the basic flight data needed to
maintain a smooth and comfortable
flight.
 From basic pitch and roll information to
approach decision height the information
is displayed in a color format that is
readable even in full sunlight.
There are both full-time and part-time
displays on most EADIs.
 The full-time displays give the pilot
information needed for flight control.
 The part time displays offer information
typically needed for runway approach or
basic navigation and are only active
during the pertinent portion of the flight.
The attitude source indicator is also
displayed to inform the flight crew which
symbol generator is currently driving this
EADI.
The electronic attitude director Indicator (EADI) can display
most of the flight attitude Information required by the pilot
for any given phase of flight.
 The part-time displays
1-Rising runway display that appears at
200 feet above ground level and is used
during the final portion of an approach.
2- Glide slope and localizer indications that
guide the pilot to the touchdown point.
3-Marker beacon and radio altimeter
displays shown in the lower left corner of
the display.
4-Decision height displayed in the lower
right corner.
ELECTRONIC HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR (EHSI)

The primary function of an EHSI: is to

display navigational information.
The EHSI is capable of displaying both
full-time and part-time information
depending on the current mode of
operation.
The electronic horizontal situation
indicator can be set for one of four
modes of operation.
These modes are:
1- Plan mode.
2- Map mode.
3- VOR mode. Very high frequency
omnirange.
4-ILS mode. Instrument landing systems.
 The flight crew selects the various modes at the EFIS
display controller.
The Plan mode the CRT displays enroute
flight information entered into the flight
management system to provide the flight crew
with a visual portrayal of their recorded flight
plan.
In the Map mode the EHSI will display the
currently active flight plan showing waypoints,
VORs, airports.
 A real-time magnetic compass rose and other
pertinent navigational information is also
displayed on a moving map display.
 The map changes as the aircraft changes its
position during flight.
 This mode can also display the weather radar
if selected.
 The Map display of the EHSI is most commonly
used during enroute portions of the flight.
The VOR and ILS display modes of
the EHSI system display the
information from the current
navigational facility (VOR or ILS).
 The wind speed VOR or ILS
frequency received and the current
aircraft heading are also displayed.
The electronic horizontal situation indicator (EHSI) displays most
of the horizontal situation information required by the pilot. The
exact data displayed will depend on the mode selected
 ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS MONITORING
DISPLAYS
 To reduce panel clutter and pilot workload.
 They rely on computers to receive data inputs from
various system of A/C.
 The computer analyze the information .
 Transmits a digital signal to one or more CRT
displays.
 Inform the flight crew of various system conditions.
 Alert the flight crew of any system malfunction.
 provide suggested corrective actions.
Electronic systems monitoring displays replace traditional
analog gauges with electronic presentations that are
easier to read and more reliable.
 ELECTRONIC CENTRALIZED AIRCRAFT
MONITOR (ECAM)
 The electronic centralized aircraft monitor
system is comprised of:
1- Two CRT display units.
2- Left and right symbol generator.
3- An ECAM control panel.
4-Discrete warning light display unit.
5-Two flight warning computers .
6- A digital-to-analog data converter.
 The various components communicate
through data bus systems.
The left CRT contains information on
systems status ,warnings and any
associated corrective actions.
 The right CRT displays information in a
pictorial format such as control surface
positions.
All information displayed on either CRT is
shown in a digital format
 There are four basic modes of operation for
the ECAM system.
 The manual mode will display pictorial
diagrams of various aircraft systems.
 The other three modes operate automatically
and are referred to as :
1-The flight phase.
2-Advisory modes.
3- Failure modes.
The flight mode displays information
related to the current phase of flight, such
as preflight, take-off, climb, enroute,
descent and landing.
The flight mode information is displayed
on the right-hand CRT.
 The advisory mode information is
displayed on the left CRT and contains
information of concern to the flight crew,
yet not critical.
The failure mode of operation automatically
takes precedence over all other modes.
 The failure mode displays any information that
may be considered critical to the flight safety.
The left-hand CRT displays appropriate
information and corrective action.
The right unit displays the status of the failed
system.
 If a failure occurs the flight crew is also alerted
to the problem through aural and visual
warnings.
ENGINE INDICATOR AND CREW ALERTING
SYSTEM (EICAS)
 This system is used to monitor the engine and
various other systems of the aircraft similar to
the ECAM.
 The upper CRT of the system displays primary
engine system information in both analog and
digital formats.
 Warnings, cautions and advisories are also
displayed on the upper-CRT.
The lower CRT is normally blank during
flight unless the flight crew selects
specific information.
The lower CRT displays information such
as systems status, aircraft configuration,
fluid quantities, various temperatures
and maintenance information.
 AUXILIARY INSTRUMENTS
1- OUTSIDE AIR TEMPERATURE
 The pilot uses outside air temperature (OAT) to
calculate true airspeed.
 The OAT gauge is usually mounted near the top of
the windscreen or out the side window beside the
pilot.
 It consists of a bimetallic-type thermometer in
which strips of two dissimilar metals are welded
together into a single strip and twisted into a helix.
 One end is anchored into a protective tube.
 The other end is affixed to the pointer that indicates
the outside air temperature on a circular dial.
2-CLOCK
 A clock is one of the most fundamental of instruments used :
1- Timing flight maneuvers.
2- For navigation .
3- For determining engine functions such as the fuel
consumption rate.
 Clocks with digital displays are now becoming popular.
 These not only display the local time, but also Greenwich
mean time (Zulu time), as well as the day and date.
 Most of these clocks are equipped with circuits that allow
them to be used as a stopwatch and an elapsed time indicator.
 Connected directly to the aircraft battery.
 INSTRUMENT SYSTEM INSTAllATION AND
MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
 Federal Aviation Regulations do not allow an
aircraft maintenance technician to repair
aircraft instruments.
 A technician is allowed to perform a number of
functions including, installation, simple
adjustments, and marking of instruments.
 A technician may install instruments into
instrument panels, connect power supplies to
instruments, place the range markings on the
faces of the instruments, and perform a
compass swing on the magnetic compass.
 PANEL LAYOUT
The non-standard size of older directional
and attitude gyros made it difficult to
place these instruments in the panel in a
manner that would allow an efficient scan
of the instruments for instrument flying.
This "Basic T" arrangement is now
standard in smaller general aviation
aircraft as well as in airliners.
 EQUIPMENT AND INSTRUMENT
MOUNTING
There are a number of methods used to install
instruments into the aircraft instrument panel:
1-Screws.
2- Circumferential Clamps.
3- Brackets.
 Shock mounts isolate instruments and equipment
from low frequency, high amplitude vibration that
might occur during landing or in rough air.
 A bonding strap must be used to complete the
protective circuit that is broken by using
nonconductive shock mounts.
 POWER REQUIREMENTS

Many instruments found on a modern

aircraft require electrical power for
operation or lighting.
Instrument lighting is typically contained
within the instrument or provided by
individual post lights.
Many instruments, along with the radio
and autopilot systems, require electrical
power for operation.
 RANGE MARKINGS
 Equipment limitations can indicate many
things such as never-exceed limits, normal
operating ranges, caution ranges, etc.
 Color-coding is sometimes used to mark limits
on the appropriate instruments.
 The exact value of each specific range can be
found in the aircraft maintenance manual,
aircraft flight manual, type certificate data
sheet (TCD), or Aircraft Specifications.
 A slippage mark must be placed on all gauges that
have range markings on the front glass of the
instrument.
 The slippage mark consists of a radial white line
that marks both the glass and the case.
 These marks are not required if the range
markings are applied to the inside of the
instrument (not on the glass).
 maintenance technicians are not allowed to open
the case and" apply markings inside the gauge.
 Only authorized repair facilities are allowed to
open the case.
 COMPASS SWING
 At many larger airports a compass rose will be
laid out on the tarmac according to magnetic
directions.
 It is usually marked with a line every thirty
degrees and is as far as possible from
electrical interference.
 Compass roses are normally on one of the
least used taxi ways where a technician will be
undisturbed while swinging a compass.
 If there is no compass rose available you can
lay one out using an accurate compass that
does not have any compensating magnets
installed.
 There should not be more than about a ten
degree difference between any of the
compass headings and the magnetic heading
of the aircraft.
 The technician should sign it with name A&P
number and the date.
 The completed card should be placed in a
holder in easy view of the pilot.
 PITOT-STATIC SYSTEM TEST
 A certified pitot -static tester must be used
when testing the altimeter and static system
as required by FAR part 91.411.
 In addition the manufacturer or a certified
repair station must perform these tests.
 When conducting tests on the pitot /static
system avoid using tape or other material that
might leave anything behind that could plug or
block these systems
 LEAKAGE TEST

 The most common type of static check involves

the installation of a certified static system check
unit.
 If the aircraft has two flush static ports cover
one of the ports with tape.
 Use black tape and make a big "X" over the hole
to ensure removal of the tape.
 Never use transparent tape or even masking
tape because it may be inadvertently left in
place after the test is completed.
 Attach the test unit to the other static port.
 Apply vacuum to the static system until the
altimeter indicates 1,000 feet above the
present altitude.
 Seal off the unit and let the system sit for one
minute.
 After one minute the altimeter indication
must not have dropped more than 100 feet.
 If the leakage of the system exceeds these
limits it must be located.
 ENTRAPPED MOISTURE REMOVAL
This should be completed prior to the
leakage test.
To remove entrapped moisture
disconnect the line from all instruments
and carefully blowout the line from the
instrument end using low-pressure
moisture-free air.