RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING

BASIC PRINCIPLES
• In radiographic testing, the part to be inspected is placed between the radiation source and a piece of
radiation sensitive film.

• The radiation source can either be an X-ray machine or a radioactive source (Ir-192, Co-60, or in rare
cases Cs-137). The part will stop some of the radiation where thicker and more dense areas will stop
more of the radiation. The radiation that passes through the part will expose the film and forms a
shadowgraph of the part.

• The film darkness (density) will vary with the amount of radiation reaching the film through the test
object where darker areas indicate more exposure (higher radiation intensity) and lighter areas indicate
less exposure (higher radiation intensity).

• This variation in the image darkness can be used to determine thickness or composition of material and
would also reveal the presence of any flaws or discontinuities inside the material
• This technique uses the ability of short wavelength electromagnetic radiations to
penetrate objects. In general shorter the wavelength, the greater the penetrating
power.
• The radiation that enters through the material, some being absorbed in the
material itself and mount of absorption is a function of density and thickness of
material.
Advantages
• Both surface and internal discontinuities can be detected.
• Significant variations in composition can be detected.
• It has a very few material limitations.
• Can be used for inspecting hidden areas (direct access to surface is not required)
• Very minimal or no part preparation is required.
• Permanent test record is obtained.
• Good portability especially for gamma-ray sources.
Disadvantages
• Hazardous to operators and other nearby personnel.
• High degree of skill and experience is required for exposure and interpretation.
• The equipment is relatively expensive (especially for x-ray sources).
• The process is generally slow.
• Highly directional (sensitive to flaw orientation).
• Depth of discontinuity is not indicated.
• It requires a two-sided access to the component.
Properties of X-Rays and Gamma Rays
• They are not detected by human senses (cannot be seen, heard, felt, etc.).
• They travel in straight lines at the speed of light.
• Their paths cannot be changed by electrical or magnetic fields.
• They can be diffracted, refracted to a small degree at interfaces between two different
materials, and in some cases be reflected.
• They pass through matter until they have a chance to encounter with an atomic particle.
• Their degree of penetration depends on their energy and the matter they are traveling through.
• They have enough energy to ionize matter and can damage or destroy living cells.
X RAY SOURCE

High Electrical Potential

Electrons
+ -

X-ray Generator
or Radioactive
Source Creates
Radiation

Radiation
Penetrate
the Sample

Exposure Recording Device

• In widely used conventional X-radiography, the source of radiation is an X ray tube.
• It consists of a glass bulb under vacuum, enclosing a positive electrode or anode and a negative
electrode or cathode.
• The cathode comprises a filament which, when brought to incandescence by a current of a few
amperes emits electrons.
• Under the effect of electrical tension set up between the anode and cathode, these electrons
from the cathode are attracted to the anode. This stream of electrons is concentrated in a beam
by a cylinder or a focussing cup.
• The area which is struck by the electron flux is called the focal spot or target. It is essential that
this area should be sufficiently large, in order to avoid local overheating which might damage
the anode and to allow rapid dissipation of heat.
• The target is a piece of metal with high melting point recessed into the anode at the place where
it is struck by the beam of electrons. It is by impinging on the target that fast moving electrons
give rise to X rays.
• The replacement of the glass tubes by metal ceramic ones has led to an extended tube life. X ray
machines are characterised by the operating voltage and current which determine the
penetrability and intensity of the radiation produced.
 PRODUCTION OF X-RAYS

• X rays are produced when fast moving electrons are suddenly brought to rest by
colliding with matter. Electrons may lose energy by ionisation and excitation of the
target atoms.
• The accelerated electrons lose there kinetic energy very rapidly at the surface of the
metal plate and energy conversion consequently occurs.
• 99% of the energy of electrons is converted to heat by increasing the thermal vibration
of the atoms of target ,the temperature of which may consequently rise considerably.
• A very small fraction , less than 1% is converted to X rays.
• Finally the most distinguishing characteristics of an X-ray beam are its intensity and
quality. Intensity refers to the quantity of radiation and the term quality refers to how
penetrating the radiation is.
 INSPECTION TECHNIQUES IN RADIOGRAPHY

• SINGLE WALL SINGLE IMAGE

• DOUBLE WALL PENETRATION TECHNIQUE

• DOUBLE WALL SINGLE IMAGE

• DOUBLE WALL DOUBLE IMAGE

• DOUBLE WALL SUPERIMPOSING TECHNIQUE

 SINGLE WALL SINGLE IMAGE TECHNIQUE

• Single wall, single image (SWSI) is a technique whereby the radiographic source
is placed inside the pipe by some suitable method, the film wrapped around the
outside of the pipe.

•  This may also be known as a panoramic exposure.

• The IQI ( image quality indicators) is placed on the outside of the pipe
immediately beneath the film.

• Both X- and gamma-radiography can be used.

Single wall single image technique. Source inside
DOUBLE WALL SINGLE IMAGE
• Where access to the bore is not possible or the pipe diameter is too small to permit the use of an
internal source then the double wall, single image (DWSI) technique is used.

• Here the film is placed on the outside of the pipe on the farthest side from the radiographic source

• The source may be offset slightly to avoid an image of the upper part of the weld to be projected
onto the film or directly in line. The source may be close to or a substantial distance from the pipe

• The need to penetrate two wall thicknesses means that the sensitivity will be poorer than with the
single wall single image technique. The technique also requires multiple exposures to enable the
complete circumference of the pipe to be examined.

• The technique is generally used on pipes over 80mm in diameter.

DOUBLE WALL DOUBLE IMAGE
 DOUBLE WALL DOUBLE IMAGE

• This technique is specially suited for smaller diameter pipes upto 80-90mm OD.

• The radiation source is kept at a distance with an offset from the axis of the weld, to avoid
superimposing of the source side weld over the film side weld to obtain an elliptical image on
the film.

• The IQI is positioned on the source side.

• Both the source and the film side welds can be interpreted from the image.

• This requires minimum of two exposures, perpendicular to each other to cover the entire
circumference of the weld.
 SUPERIMPOSING TECHNIQUE

• This technique is attempted whenever the required offset to obtain double image
could not be possible due to site restrictions for the pipes with small diameters.

• The source is kept at a distance without offset, thereby the source weld is
superimposed on the film side weld on the film.

• This requires minimum of 3 exposures 120 apart to cover the entire length of the
weld.
 HIGH ENERGY X-RAY SOURCE

• Examination of thicker sections is carried out using high energy X-rays whose energy
value is 1MeV or more.

• Using high energy X-rays, possibilities of large distance to thickness ratios with
correspondingly low geometrical distortions ,short exposure times and high production
rate can be achieved.

• A small focal spot size and reduced amount of high angle scattered X rays reaching the
film results in radiographs with good contrast, excellent penetrameter sensitivity and good
resolution.
 GAMMA RAY SOURCE


Gamma rays are produced by a radio isotope.

A radioisotope has an unstable nuclei that does not have enough binding energy
to hold the nucleus together.

The spontaneous breakdown of an atomic nucleus resulting in the release of
energy and matter is known as radioactive decay.

Most of the radioactive materials used in industrial radiography are artificially
produced.

Unlike X-Rays, which are produced by a machine, gamma rays cannot be turned
off. Radioisotopes used for gamma radiography are encapsulated to prevent
leakage of the material.

Most popular sources are Co-60, Ir-192,Cs-137.
 IMAGE QUALITY INDICATORS
• Image Quality Indicator – is a device for showing the quality of a radiograph.
• The quality of a radiograph determines the amount of detail that can be shown. Generally, the
quality of a radiograph depends on two factors:
• The unsharpness or blurring of the image;
• The contrast or change in density on an image for a known change in thickness in the
specimen
Common types of IQI are 'Wire' or 'Step'. The wire IQI consists of a series of wires of
decreasing diameter encapsulated in plastic. The diameter of the thinnest wire that can be
seen on the radiographic image provides a measure of the quality of the image. The step
IQI is a piece of material that decreases stepwise in thickness and contains holes. Again
it is the smallest thickness that can be seen on the image that provides a measure of the
quality. The use of IQIs is covered by radiographic standards and when specifying an IQI
it is important to quote the number of the standard to which it relates.
Plaque or strip type has three holes drilled on a strip having thickness 2%of the
specimen.
 REAL TIME RADIOGRAPHY
• Various types of image conversion techniques allow the viewing of radiographic images while
the test piece is being irradiated and moved with respect to the radiation source and the
radiation detector. These radioscopic techniques can be classified as real-time radiography.
• An example of near real-time radiographic imaging involves the use of discrete detectors that
scan the area being irradiated. The outputs are then processed digitally to form images in near
real time. This technique is often referred to as digital radiography.
• The predecessor of the modern methods of real-time radiography is fluoroscopy. This
technique, which is now largely obsolete, involves the projection of radiographic images on a
fluorescent screen.
• The screen consists of fluorescent crystals, which emit light in proportion to the intensity of the
impinging radiation. The radiographic image can then be viewed, with appropriate measures
taken to protect the viewer from radiation.
• Real-Time Radiography is a term used to describe a form of radiography that allows electronic
images to be captured and viewed in real time.
• Because image acquisition is almost instantaneous, x-ray images can be viewed as the part is
moved and rotated.
• The usual source of radiation for RTR systems is the X-ray generator. The main reason that an
X-ray generator is used is because image intensifiers are relatively inefficient at converting
radiation to light, and thus more flux is required than an isotope can offer
• Manipulating the part can be advantageous for several reasons:
• It may be possible to image the entire component with one exposure.
• Viewing the internal structure of the part from different angular prospectives can provide
additional data for analysis.
• Time of inspection can often be reduced.
 IMAGE INTENSIFIER TUBES

• They are glass-enclosed vacuum devices that convert a low-intensity x-ray image
or a low-brightness fluorescent-screen image into a high-brightness visible-light
image.
• In RTR, as in conventional radiography, X-rays passing through the part are used
to produce an image. For the transmitted energy to be useful, it must be converted
to an energy form that the system components can utilize to produce the image.
Usually, radiation is converted to light energy (visible light), and this light is
converted to an electronic signal (a video signal).
• The image intensifier commonly used as a converter device, contains a fluorescent
material such as cesium iodide. On the input screen, the visible light is much too
dim to produce a usable image. There, photons are converted to electrons,
accelerated, and reconverted to light on the output screen.
 Comparing Film and Real-Time Radiography

Real-time images are Film images are darker

lighter in areas where in areas where more X-
more X-ray photons ray photons reach and
reach and excite the ionize the silver
fluoroscent screen. molecules in the film.
• RADIOGRAPHIC FILM:
• X-ray films for general radiography basically consist of an emulsion-gelatin containing
radiation-sensitive silver halide crystals (such as silver bromide or silver chloride).
• The emulsion is usually coated on both sides of a flexible, transparent, blue-tinted base in
layers about 0.012 mm thick.
• An adhesive undercoat fastens the emulsion to the film base and a very thin but tough coating
covers the emulsion to protect it against minor abrasion.
• The typical total thickness of the X-ray film is approximately 0.23 mm. Though films are made
to be sensitive for X-ray or gamma-ray, yet they are also sensitive to visible light.
• When X-rays, gamma-rays, or light strike the film, some of the halogen atoms are liberated
from the silver halide crystal and thus leaving the silver atoms alone. This change is of such a
small nature that it cannot be detected by ordinary physical methods and is called a “latent
(hidden) image”. When the film is exposed to a chemical solution (developer) the reaction
results in the formation of black, metallic silver .
 QUALITY OF A GOOD RADIOGRAPH
1. RADIOGRAPHIC CONTRASTis the degree of density (darkness) difference between two
areas on a radiograph. Contrast makes it easier to distinguish features of interest, such as
defects, from the surrounding area.
Radiographic “Image” Density

• After taking a radiographic image of a part and processing the film, the resulting darkness of the
film will vary according to the amount of radiation that has reached the film through the test object.

• The darker areas indicate more exposure and lighter areas indicate less exposure. The processed
film (or image) is usually viewed by placing it in front of a screen providing white light
illumination of uniform intensity such that the light is transmitted through the film such that the
image can be clearly seen.

• The term “radiographic density” is a measure of the degree of film darkening (darkness of the
image)

• . Radiographic density is the logarithm of two measurements: the intensity of light incident on the
film (I0 ) and the intensity of light transmitted through the film (I T ). This ratio is the inverse of
transmittance.
Industrial codes and standards typically require a radiograph to have a density between
2.0 and 4.0 for acceptable viewing with common film viewers.
• Subject Contrast
• Subject contrast is the ratio of radiation intensities transmitted through different areas of the
component being evaluated. It is dependant on the absorption differences in the component, the
wavelength of the primary radiation, and intensity and distribution of secondary radiation due to
scattering. Generating X-rays using a low kilo voltage will generally result in a radiograph with
high contrast. This occurs because low energy radiation is more easily attenuated. Therefore, the
ratio of photons that are transmitted through a thick and thin area will be greater with low
energy radiation.

Film Contrast
Film contrast refers to density differences that result due to the type of film being used, how
it was exposed, and how it was processed.
• Radiographic definition is the abruptness of change in going from one area of a given
radiographic density to another. In the high definition radiograph it can be seen that a change in
the thickness of the step wedge translates to an abrupt change in radiographic density. In the
lower image, the edge line between the steps is blurred. Both geometric factors of the
equipment and the radiographic setup, and film and screen factors have an effect on definition
• GEOMETRIC FACTORS:It occurs because the radiation does not originate from a single
point but rather over an area. The three factors controlling unsharpness are source size, source
to object distance, and object to detector (film) distance.

• In general, in order to produce the highest level of definition, the focal-spot or source size
should be as close to a point source as possible, the source-to-object distance should be as large
as practical, and the object-to-detector distance should be a small as practical.

• Codes and standards used in industrial radiography require that geometric unsharpness be
limited. In general, the allowable amount is 1/100 of the material thickness up to a maximum of
1 mm. These values refer to the width of penumbra shadow in a radiographic image.
Ug: amount of geometrical unsharpness
ds: source focal-spot size
a: distance from the source to the front surface
of the object
b: distance from the front surface of the object to
the detector (or the thickness of the object if a
thick object is placed immediately on top of the
detector)
• The angle between the radiation and some features will also have an effect on definition. If the
radiation is parallel to an edge or linear discontinuity, a sharp distinct boundary will be seen in
the image. However, if the radiation is not parallel with the discontinuity, the feature will appear
distorted, out of position and less defined in the image.
• Abrupt changes in thickness and/or density will appear more defined in a radiograph
than will areas of gradual change. For example, consider a circle. Its largest
dimension will be a cord that passes through its centerline. As the cord is moved away
from the centerline, the thickness gradually decreases. It is sometimes difficult to
locate the edge of a void due to this gradual change in thickness.

• Any movement of the specimen, source or detector during the exposure will reduce
definition. Similar to photography, any movement will result in blurring of the image.
Vibration from nearby equipment may be an issue in some inspection situations.
Film and Screen Factors
• The last set of factors concern the film and the use of fluorescent screens. A fine grain film is
capable of producing an image with a higher level of definition than is a coarse grain film.
Wavelength of the radiation will influence apparent graininess. As the wavelength shortens and
penetration increases, the apparent graininess of the film will increase. Also, increased
development of the film will increase the apparent graininess of the radiograph.
• The use of fluorescent screens also results in lower definition. This occurs for a couple of
different reasons. The reason that fluorescent screens are sometimes used is because incident
radiation causes them to give off light that helps to expose the film. However, the light they
produce spreads in all directions, exposing the film in adjacent areas, as well as in the areas
which are in direct contact with the incident radiation. Fluorescent screens also produce screen
mottle on radiographs. Screen mottle is associated with the statistical variation in the numbers
of photons that interact with the screen from one area to the next.
• Radiographic Sensitivity
• The usual objective in radiography is to produce an image showing the highest amount of detail
possible. This requires careful control of a number of different variables that can affect image
quality.

• Radiographic sensitivity is a measure of the quality of an image in terms of the smallest detail
or discontinuity that may be detected.

• Radiographic sensitivity is dependant on the contrast and the definition of the image.
 FILM PROCESSING
• As mentioned previously, radiographic film consists of a transparent, blue-tinted base coated on
both sides with an emulsion.
• The emulsion consists of gelatin containing microscopic, radiation sensitive silver halide
crystals, such as silver bromide and silver chloride.
• When X-rays, gamma rays or light rays strike the crystals or grains, some of the Br- ions are
liberated leaving the Ag+ ions. In this condition, the radiograph is said to contain a latent
(hidden) image because the change in the grains is virtually undetectable, but the exposed
grains are now more sensitive to reaction with the developer.
• When the film is processed, it is exposed to several different chemical solutions for controlled
periods of time.
• Development: The developing agent gives up electrons to convert the silver halide grains to metallic
silver. Grains that have been exposed to the radiation develop more rapidly, but given enough time
the developer will convert all the silver ions into silver metal. Proper temperature control is needed
to convert exposed grains to pure silver while keeping unexposed grains as silver halide crystals.

• Stopping the development: The stop bath simply stops the development process by diluting and
washing the developer away with water.

• Fixing: Unexposed silver halide crystals are removed by the fixing bath. The fixer dissolves only
silver halide crystals, leaving the silver metal behind.

• Washing: The film is washed with water to remove all the processing chemicals.

• Drying: The film is dried for viewing.

 SPEED OF FILMS

High speed film:

• Grains will react to the exposure considerably sooner than other films
• They have larger grains and may not be able to produce the minute details.
• Exposure time will be shorter.
Low speed films:
• Grains will react to the exposure considerably slower than other films
• They have fine grains which gives better quality
• The exposure time will be longer
• Film Selection

Selecting the proper film and developing the optimal radiographic technique for a particular
component depends on a number of different factors;

• Composition, shape, and size of the part being examined and, in some cases, its weight and
location.

• Type of radiation used, whether X-rays from an X-ray generator or gamma rays from a
radioactive source.

• Kilo-voltage available with the X-ray equipment or the intensity of the gamma radiation.

• Relative importance of high radiographic detail or quick and economical results.

 RADIATION SAFETY
• The amount of risk depends on the amount of radiation dose received, the time over which the
dose is received, and the body parts exposed.
• Type of radiation involved
• Size of dose received
• Rate at which the dose is received: Tissue can receive larger dosages over a period of time. If
the dosage occurs over a number of days or weeks, the results are often not as serious if a
similar dose was received in a matter of minutes
• The age of the individual :As a person ages, cell division slows and the body is less sensitive to
the effects of ionizing radiation
• Biological differences
 CONTROLLING RADIATION EXPOSURE

• When working with radiation, there is a concern for two types of exposure: acute and chronic.

• An acute exposure is a single accidental exposure to a high dose of radiation during a short
period of time.

• Chronic exposure, which is also sometimes called “continuous exposure”, is long-term, low
level over exposure.

• The three basic ways of controlling exposure to harmful radiation are: 1) limiting the time
spent near a source of radiation, 2) increasing the distance away from the source, 3) and using
shielding to stop or reduce the level of radiation
Distance
• Increasing distance from the source of radiation will reduce the amount of radiation received.
As radiation travels from the source, it spreads out becoming less intense.
This phenomenon can be expressed by the Newton inverse square law, which states that as the
radiation travels out from the source, the dosage decreases inversely with the square of the
distance: I1 / I2 = D22/ D12
Shielding
• Method of placing something between the radiographer and the source of radiation.
• In general, the more dense the material the more shielding it will provide.
• Lead and concrete are the most commonly used radiation shielding materials primarily because
they are easy to work with and are readily available materials
TIME
• The radiation dose is directly proportional to the time spent in the radiation. Therefore, a
person should not stay near a source of radiation any longer than necessary.
• Radiation Detectors
Instruments used for radiation measurement fall into two broad categories:
• Rate measuring instruments.
• Personal dose measuring instruments.

• Rate measuring instruments measure the rate at which exposure is received (more commonly
called the radiation intensity). Survey meters, audible alarms and area monitors fall into this
category. These instruments present a radiation intensity reading relative to time, such as R/hr
or mR/hr.
• Dose measuring instruments are those that measure the total amount of exposure received
during a measuring period. The dose measuring instruments, or dosimeters, that are commonly
used in industrial radiography are small devices which are designed to be worn by an individual
to measure the exposure received by the individual