BREAD AND PASTRY

HISTORY OF BREAD
• Bread, in all its various forms, is the most
widely consumed food in the world. Not only
is it an important source of carbohydrates, it’s
also portable and compact, which helps to
explain why it has been an integral part of our
diet for thousands of years. In fact, recent
scholarship suggests humans started baking
bread at least 30,000 years ago.
 HISTORY OF BREAD
• Prehistoric man had already been making gruel
from water and grains, so it was a small jump to
starting cooking this mixture into a solid by frying it
on stones. A 2010 study by the National Academy of
Sciences discovered traces of starch (likely from the
roots of cattails and ferns) in prehistoric mortar and
pestle-like rocks. The roots would have been peeled
and dried before they were ground into flour and
mixed with water. Finally, the paste would be
cooked on heated rocks.
• History of Bread Making
• HistoryOfBread.com is place where you can
read all about bread including its history,
types, making process, ingredients list,
interesting facts, statistics and many other
interesting information. Also, here you can
find history of wheat, flour and baker’s yeast.
• Bread History
• Bread appeared in all corners of the Earth
when people domesticated their plants. It was
made from different ingredients and in
different ways but it became staple food of all
cultures. Learn more about bread history.
• Bread Facts
• Do you know how long is a longest bread ever
made? Do you know from where word
companion comes? Do you know how many
sandwiches are eaten in UK every year? Find
out here more facts about bread.
• Bread Making
• Bread is one of the earliest heat prepared
food, maybe because it is one of the simplest.
But because of that it changed and improved
over time. Today it can still be prepared in a
simple way it is also made with a variety of
additives, especially in commercial
production.
 Brief History

• Bread is a staple food of humanity for 30,000 years. There is

archaeological evidence of flour from that time, which was likely
processed into unleavened bread. Cereals and bread became a staple
food during the Neolithic, somewhere around 10,000 years ago, when 
wheat and barley were some of the first plants to be domesticated in the
so-called “Fertile Crescent”, region of Mesopotamia and near Nile. Other
parts of the world independently domesticated other cereals such as rice
in East Asia, maize in the Americas and sorghum in sub-Saharan Africa,
made bread out of them and formed the basis of alternative agricultural
systems. Cereal crops gave possibility to agricultural societies to sustain
much larger populations than had previously been possible which in time
led rise of civilized states. Leavened bread also appeared in prehistoric
times. Early ways of leavening was done by piece of dough from the
previous day that worked as a form of sourdough starter.
 HISTORY OF BREAD
• Bread was central to the formation of early human
societies. From the Fertile Crescent, where wheat
 was domesticated, cultivation spread north and
west, to Europe and North Africa, and east towards
East Asia. This in turn led to the formation of towns,
as opposed to the nomadic lifestyle, and gave rise
to more and more sophisticated forms of societal
organization. Similar developments occurred in the
Americas with maize and in Asia with rice.
 History of bread
• The bread making process originated in
ancient times. The basis of the operation is to
mix flour with other ingredients, for example,
water, fat, salt and some source of aeration
followed by baking. As long ago as 2,000 BC
the Egyptians knew how to make
fermented bread.
 10 Different Flour Types to Use in Your Baking

1. All-purpose flour should be a staple in your

kitchen. Milled from a mixture of soft and hard
wheat varieties, it has a moderate protein content
of about 10 to 12 percent. As the most versatile
flour, it’s capable of creating flaky pie crusts, chewy
cookies, and fluffy pancakes. If a recipe calls for
“flour,” it most likely means all-purpose flour.
• Best Used For: Cookies, muffins, bread, pie
crusts, pancakes, biscuits, pizza dough, and pasta
2.Cake Flour
• Cake flour has the lowest protein content of all
flours at 5 to 8 percent. Because of this, it has less
gluten, which leads to softer baked goods—perfect
for cakes (obviously!), muffins, and biscuits. Cake
flour also absorbs more liquid and sugar than all-
purpose flour, which guarantees a super moist cake.
• Best Used For: Sponge cakes, pound cakes, layer
cakes, angel food cakes, muffins, and biscuits
3.Pastry Flour
• With an 8 to 9 percent protein content, pastry flour
falls in between all-purpose flour and cake flour. It
strikes the perfect balance between flakiness and
tenderness, making it the go-to choice for pie crusts,
tarts, and cookies. You can even make your own at
home by mixing 1 1/3 cups of all-purpose flour with
2/3 cup cake flour.
• Best Used For: Pie crusts, cookies, muffins, cakes,
pancakes, biscuits, and bread sticks
4. Bread Flour
• Milled entirely from hard wheat, bread flour is the
strongest of all flours with a high protein content at
12 to 14 percent. This comes in handy when baking
yeasted breads because of the strong gluten content
required to make the bread rise properly. Bread flour
makes for a better volume and a chewier crumb with
your bakes.
• Best Used For: Artisan breads, yeast breads, bagels,
pretzels, and pizza dough
5. Self-Rising Flour
• The secret ingredients of self-rising flour are the
baking powder and salt added during the milling
process. It’s generally made from soft wheat with a
protein content around 8 to 9 percent. You can make
your own at home by mixing 1 cup pastry flour with
1 ½ teaspoon baking powder and ¼ teaspoon salt. Be
careful not to substitute self-rising flour for other
flours while baking! The added ingredients can throw
off the rest of the measurements in your recipe.
6. Whole Wheat Flour
• King Arthur Whole Wheat Flour
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• During the milling process, a kernel of wheat is separated into its three components:
the endosperm, the germ, and the bran. To make white flour, just the endosperm is
milled. To make whole wheat flour, varying amounts of the germ and bran are added
back in to the flour. Whole wheat flour tends to have a high protein content around
13 to 14 percent, but the presence of the germ and bran affect the flour’s gluten-
forming ability. Because of this, whole wheat flour usually leads to super sticky
dough and denser baked goods. The presence of wheat germ also makes whole
wheat flour far more perishable than white flour. While white flour can sit in your
pantry in an airtight canister for up to eight months, whole wheat flour will only stay
at its best for up to three months.
• Best Used For: Cookies, bread, pancakes, pizza dough, and pasta
7. White Whole Wheat Flour
• Not to be confused with bleached flour, white whole wheat
flour is made up of the same components as whole wheat flour,
but from a paler variety of wheat called hard white wheat. It
has the same protein content as whole wheat flour at 13 to 14
percent, but it tastes slightly sweeter because of its lower
tannin content. Whole wheat flour and white whole wheat
flour actually have the same health benefits, so if you prefer
the taste and texture of white bread, but want the nutritional
value from whole wheat, then this is the flour for you.
• Best Used For: Bread, muffins, and cookies
9. Gluten-Free Flour
• Gluten-free flour can be made from all sorts of ingredient
bases, such as rice, corn, potato, tapioca, buckwheat,
quinoa, sorghum, or nuts. Xanthan gum can sometimes be
added to gluten-free flour to help stimulate the chewiness
associated with gluten. Gluten-free flour can’t always be
substituted 1:1 for white flour, so be sure to check your
specific recipe if you’re thinking about swapping the two.
• Best Used For: Cakes, cookies, pancakes, bread, and
muffins
10. Almond Flour
• Almond flour is made by blanching almonds in boiling
water to remove the skins, then grinding and sifting them
into a fine flour. This gluten-free favorite is low in carbs
and high in healthy fats and fiber. To replace wheat flour
with almond flour, start by replacing the flours 1:1 and
then add more of a rising agent (like baking powder or
baking soda) to accommodate the heavier weight of the
almond flour.
• Best Used For: Cookies, muffins, pancakes, biscuits, and
bread
• 11. 00 Flour
• Often referred to as Italian-style flour, 00 flour is
made from the hardest type of wheat with a
protein content of 11 to 12 percent. The “00”
refers to the super fine texture of the flour making
it easy to roll out to extreme thinness without
breaking, which is perfect for pasta and crackers.
• Best Used For: Pasta, couscous, thin crust pizza
dough, flatbreads, and crackers
 What is Shortening?

• Shortening is an edible fat that is solid at room temperature. It

shortens the gluten strands in wheat, which provides three textural
attributes in baked goods:
• Shortening, by definition, is any fat that is solid at room temperature
and used in baking. This actually includes a few things that you may
have thought were definitely not shortening before–like
lard, and margarine, and hydrogenated vegetable oils, for instance.
Shortening helps give baked goods a delicate, crumbly texture.
Shortening is a word that my deep South Carolinian grandmother
used a lot while she was baking, and I am sure many grandmothers in
the South did as well. In common terms, this word typically refers to
Crisco® or another mass-produced brand you can find in your grocery
stores, but that is not actually a correct usage of the term shortening.
 Properties of common cooking fats (per
100 g)
Properties of common cooking fats (per 100 g)

Type of fat Total fat (g) Saturated fat (g) Mono­unsaturated fat (g) Poly­unsaturated fat (g) Smoke point

Butter[8] 80-88 43-48 15-19 2-3 150 °C (302 °F)[9]

Canola oil[10] 100 6-7 62-64 24-26 205 °C (401 °F)[11][12]

Coconut oil[13] 99 83 6 2 177 °C (351 °F)

Corn oil[14] 100 13-14 27-29 52-54 230 °C (446 °F)[9]

Lard[15] 100 39 45 11 190 °C (374 °F)[9]

Olive oil[17] 100 13-19 59-74 6-16 190 °C (374 °F)[9]

Peanut oil[16] 100 17 46 32 225 °C (437 °F)[9]

Rice bran oil 100 25 38 37 250 °C (482 °F)[18]

Soybean oil[19] 100 15 22 57-58 257 °C (495 °F)[9]

Suet[20] 94 52 32 3 200 °C (392 °F)

Sunflower oil[21] 100 10 20 66 225 °C (437 °F)[9]

Sunflower oil (high oleic) 100 12 84[11] 4[11]

Vegetable shortening [22] 100 25 41 28 165 °C (329 °F)[9]

What is butter?

1. Butter is a fat that is made from cream that’s

been churned into a solid state. It’s versatile,
reliable and can pack a dish with flavor. Typical
butter is around 80 percent fat—the rest is
water and milk solids. With this ratio, butter can
hold its own in a variety of situations, whether
you’re frying eggs or whipping up chocolate chip
cookies (or baking these decadent 
chocolate peanut butter brownies).
2. What is margarine?
• Originally invented in the 1860s as an inexpensive butter substitute,
margarine is a trickier beast to cook with. Margarine is created
when hydrogen is added to vegetable oil. It’s often heavily diluted—
especially the kind found in tubs. You can be working with
something that’s as low as 35 percent fat. (Remember, fat = flavor.)
This means it’s not a very reliable option for baking but will still
work fine in other cooking.
• Psst! Most margarine is packed with trans fats, which are best
avoided; if you do choose to use margarine, look for one that is
completely free of trans fats and go to town on delicious recipes like
these creamy caramels.
3. What is lard?
• Julia Child once said, “If you’re afraid of butter, use cream.” We hope that
when it comes to cooking, you’re not afraid of butter or butter’s big
sister, lard. (Even if it has suffered from a not-so-favorable reputation.)
Though it’s made from raw or rendered pig fat, don’t worry, it won’t
taste like pork. We’re excited that its virtues are once again being
celebrated, as it’s entirely versatile and great for frying, roasting, or
making some of the flakiest pastries you’ve ever tried. We love it in pie
crusts (like this cinnamon sugar apple pie), crispy vegetables, biscuits, or 
collard greens everyone will actually want to eat. For sweet treats, it will
make for more shortbread-style cookies or tender, but less rich, cakes.
• Extra tip: Lard will make for some of the best Mexican tamales you’ve
ever had.
4. What is shortening?
• The word “shortening” actually refers to all fat and
oils, but is most commonly associated with Crisco and
other vegetable oil products. To make shortening, oils
like soybean, cottonseed or palm are hydrogenated
(read: a scientist adds the chemical hydrogen) so they
stay semisolid at room temperature. Like lard,
shortening is 100 percent fat, but unlike lard, it was
enjoying a period of popularity in recent years. We
love what it adds to our favorite sugar cookies.
5. Cooking oil- is an alternative of lard
6. Edible Tallow – it is obtained mainly in cattle
fats . It is used in dry bread types,crakers with
thick bodies
7. Vegetable shortening- made from deodorized
oils such as coconut,corn,germs,soy beans and
cotton seeds.
 The 15 Different Types of Sugar and How to
Use Them
• All sugars do have something in common, though: They are made by
extracting sugar juice from sugar beet or sugarcane plants. But, from
there, many varieties of sugar can be made, some great for lending a
crunchy, sweet texture to bread and others that are molasses-forward
and that go well in barbecue sauces.
• 1. Confectioners' sugar
• Also known as powdered sugar, this is basically granulated sugar that's ground to
a smooth powder and then sifted, according to The Sugar Association. It's usually
mixed with a little bit of cornstarch to prevent it from caking. Confectioners'
sugar is perfect for decorating a variety of baked goods, Donovan says. It can be
sprinkled on a dessert or used to make icing. Because it's smooth and has
stabilizing properties, it's often used in whipped cream, too, she says. You can
actually make powdered sugar at home, by blending one cup of sugar with one
tablespoon of cornstarch.
2. Granulated sugar
• This is the most common type of sugar. From
cookies to cakes, there's a good chance the
recipe is calling for granulated sugar. "
• 3. Fruit sugar
• Fruit sugar crystals are smaller than those of regular sugar,
according to The Sugar Association. This is the type of sugar you'll
commonly find in dry mixes used to make pudding or gelatin.
• 4. Baker's special sugar
• "The fine nature of baker's special sugar is ideal for meringues
and buttercreams, as it dissolves much faster than regular
granulated sugar," Donovan says. Developed for the baking
industry specifically, you'll often see it as the sugar used atop
donuts or cookies or to create fine crumbles, The Sugar
Association says.
• 5. Superfine sugar
• Caster sugar or bar sugar are some of the names that this sugar goes by. Superfine
sugar is, you guessed it, made up of fine crystals. Because of this, it dissolves well in
cold beverages and can be used to make a simple syrup for cocktails, Donovan says.
• 6. Cane sugar
• Cane sugar is minimally processed sugar that's made from sugarcane alone, explains
Jeff Ontiveros, the senior manager of Whole Foods Market's Global Pastry Program.
This sugar can be used in any product that calls for "granulated sugar," he says.
• 7. Coarse sugar
• This type consists of large crystals. You'll often find coarse sugar topping baked items
like quick breads, cookies, and Danish pastries, Ontiveros says. "It gives a crunchy
texture to the final product," he says. The larger crystals also make it resistant to
inversion (that's the breakdown to fructose and glucose) at baking temperatures,
according to The Sugar Association, so coarse sugar is good for fondants and liquor.
• 8. Sanding sugar
• Whether the granules are large or small, they reflect light to look as
though they are sparkling, according to The Sugar Association. Sanding
sugar is used to decorate products that are already baked, Ontiveros
explains. "This sugar is usually colored and sprinkled onto sugar cookies
 with royal icing," he says.
• 9. Pearl sugar
• Because of its thick granules, pearl sugar doesn't melt during the baking
process, explains Clémence Gossett, co-owner and head pastry chef at 
The Gourmandise School of Sweets & Savories. The school uses pearl
sugar, for example, in its Scandinavian classes. "Pearl sugars are made
by compressing white sugar to keep it from dissolving, even inside
baked goods like those delicious Liege waffles," she says.
• 10. Light brown sugar
• Brown sugars are made by adding molasses to refined sugar crystals;
less so for light brown sugar and more for dark brown, explains Gossett.
"The extra moisture from the molasses is what helps give your
chocolate chip cookies a chewier consistency and a deeper, more
complex sweetness," she says. Light brown sugar is most commonly
used in baked goods, according to The Sugar Association.
• 11. Dark brown sugar
• Dark brown sugar is darker in color and has more of a molasses flavor
than light brown sugar. It's used in baking to produce a more complex
caramel and toffee flavor, Ontiveros says. This rich aroma is just right
for gingerbread cookies, as well as baked beans and barbecuing,
according to The Sugar Association.
• 14. Muscovado sugar
• Looking for a traditional butterscotch flavor? Ignore the bag of
artificially flavored chips at the supermarket and look for a small
bag of muscovado sugar, suggests Gossett. "Muscovado is the least
processed of all the sugars on the market, and, as such, retains the
most complex sweetness, including the intense butterscotch notes
you remember from candies and puddings," she says.
• 15. Liquid sugar
• Simple syrup, or liquid sugar, has a 1:1 ratio of water and white,
granulated sugar. This type of sugar is not crystalized, and it
uniformly melts into liquids, Ontiveros explains. This would be most
commonly used to sweeten drinks like coffee, tea, or cocktails.
 Leavening Agent
•  leavening agent /ˈlɛvənɪŋ/ (and also known as
a raising agent), is any one of a number of
substances used in doughs and batters that cause a 
foaming action (gas bubbles) that lightens and
softens the mixture. An alternative or supplement to
leavening agents is mechanical action by which air is
incorporated (i.e. kneading). Leavening agents can
be biological or synthetic chemical compounds. The
gas produced is often carbon dioxide, or
occasionally hydrogen.
 Function of Leavening Agents

• Leavening agents are added to the batter before the

dish is prepared or baked. The batter must be left for
some time for the leavening agent to act on it and
produce the ‘raised’ results. The basic work of any
leavening agent is to create a foaming action which
lightens and softens the batter. Leavening agents
create air pockets into the batter by producing a gas.
This makes the batter to rise & become fluffy. Often,
the gas produced by the leavening agents is either
carbon dioxide or hydrogen.
 Types of leavening agents used in baking

• BIOLOGICAL LEAVENING AGENTS: 

• Biological leavening agents are the ones which involve the use of some
harmless micro-organisms in the process of leavening. Yeast or
Saccharomyces Cerevisiae species is one such agent which produces carbon
dioxide when added into food. This Saccharomyces Cerevisiae is present in
the below biological agents:
• Baker’s Yeast – Yeast Leavening
• It refers to the various strains of yeast which are used in baking of bread and
other bakery products. The primary function of yeast is to convert
fermentable sugars present in the dough into carbon dioxide and ethanol.
Baker’s Yeast is activated by adding it to a warm sugar water solution. The
water must be warm & not too hot (which could kill the yeast) or too cold
(which would not help in activating the deactivated yeast) Yeast growth can
be slowed down or stopped using salt or some fats.
• Beer
• The most popular drink in the world after water and tea is formed by the fermentation of starches
mainly derived from cereal grains. Beer is also used as a leavening agent due to the presence of
carbon dioxide in it.
• Ginger Beer
• It is a carbonated drink available as an alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverage. It is prepared by the
natural fermentation of ginger, yeast and sugar. It can be used in baking and other dishes involving
leavening due to the presence of carbon dioxide in it.
• Kefir
• Kefir also called as Milk Kefir or Bulgaros is a fermented milk drink which is made using kefir “grains”.
Mildly intoxicating, this sour, carbonated drink is similar in taste to thin yogurt. Due to the presence of
lactic acid bacteria and yeast, Kefir can be used as a good leavening agent in cooking and baking.
• Sourdough Starter
• It is a form of bread made by the fermentation of dough using naturally occurring lactobacilli and
yeast. It is mixed with flour to give the effect of leavening. The action of sourdough starters is slower
than baker’s yeast and is generally not suitable for use in a bread machine.
 CHEMICAL LEAVENING AGENTS: 

• Chemical leaveners are made up with mixtures or compounds that release gases when
they react with each other, with moisture or with heat. Most leavening agents are a
combination of a salt of bicarbonate and an acid. The reaction of this acid and salt
leaves behind a chemical salt. Chemical leaveners are used in cooking that requires a
quick fermentation effect such as in breads and cakes. Most common chemical
leavening agents are:
• Baking Powder
• It is a fine white substance which reacts in the presence of liquid and heat, releasing
carbon dioxide. Baking powder has a built in acid that activates it.
• Baking Soda
• Also called as Bicarbonate of Soda or Sodium Bicarbonate, a fine white powder
consisting of a mixture of alkaline salts. It is manufactured by adding carbon dioxide to
huge vats of water containing sodium chloride and ammonia. When the resultant
sodium bicarbonate settles at the bottom, it is filtered, washed in cold water, dried and
ground to a fine powder. Baking Soda needs an acidic ingredient to activate it like
molasses, honey, fruit/fruit juice, lemon juice, yoghurt etc.
 NATURAL  LEAVENING AGENTS
• Steam
• Steam can be used as leavening agents for cooking that is
done at very high temperatures. The batter must be
capable of holding in the steam until it is set. Steam gives
the effect of leavening as it expands upon heating. This way
of cooking is generally applied in popovers and Yorkshire
puddings.
• Piercing a Popover to allow the steam to escapeAir
• Air is another leavening agent that can be incorporated by
beating the batter thoroughly with Mechanical leavening
agents. The trapped air expands upon heating.
 PHYSICAL/MECHANICAL LEAVENING AGENTS: 

• Creaming
• Creaming is also a leavening process where the sugar crystals are
beaten together with solid fat. The sugar crystals cut through the
structure of the fat integrating tiny air bubbles into the mixture.
This process of leavening is mainly done in cookies.
• Whipping or Whisking
• Whipping or Whisking is also a process of leavening where cream
or egg whites are whisked vigorously to create a foaming action.
This process is usually done in the making of sponge cakes.
•  
 What is MILk?
• the white liquid produced by cows, goats,
and sheep and used by humans as a drink or
for making butter, cheese, etc.:
• a food product produced from seeds or fruit
that resembles and is used similarly to cow's
milk
 22 Different Types of Milk (Animal & Plant-Based)

• Whole Milk
• This is also known as ‘regular’ milk that consists of about 3.5% of fat
content. The fat percentage typically ranges somewhere between
3.25% and 3.5%. The primary reason why it is called ‘whole’ milk is it is
comparatively purer than most other types of milk, and also because
of its fat content.
• Whole milk is considered to be very thick, creamy, and rich, and pairs
perfectly with a bowl of oatmeal for breakfast in the morning. In the
words of the Dairy Council of California, the whole is milk is basically
“the way it comes from the cow before processing.”Although it is
pasteurized and probably even homogenized, the ratio of fat to milk in
whole milk is the same as raw milk.
 Low Fat Milk

• Low-fat milk is often confused with reduced-fat milk;

however, they are actually different from one another.
While the latter consists of 2% fat percentage, low-fat milk
has only one percent of fat content. Due to its incredibly
less fat percentage, this type of milk is ideal for weight
watchers. This is also because consuming low-fat milk
means you are having less saturated fat which further
helps keep cholesterol levels under control.
• Often, you will find low-fat milk with skim milk powder
added to it which boosts its protein and calcium content
and also makes it creamier than before.
 Organic Milk

• Organic milk comes from those cows that aren’t given

supplemental hormones and it is produced by those dairy farmers
who use only organic pesticides and fertilizers. This milk has three
key characteristics that distinguish them from other types of milk.
Firstly, it comes from cows that get 30 percent of their diet from
pasture, secondly, these cows aren’t given any kind of antibiotics,
and lastly, they aren’t fed any reproduction or growth hormones.
• The term ‘organic’ primarily refers to the different processes that
make the milk organic rather than the final milk product. The
nutritional profile of this milk is almost the same as the standard
milk so there is no significant difference in terms of the nutrients
and health benefits provided by organic milk.
 Skimmed Milk (Fat-Free Milk)

• Skimmed milk is also known as ‘fat-free milk’ and is quite a

popular choice of milk among weight watchers and health-
conscious people. The sole reason for that is obviously because
skimmed milk contains zero amount of fat. The lack of fat
makes this milk way thinner as compared to other types of
milk.
• As the name suggests, this milk goes through the process of
“skimming” which refers to the removal of cream from the milk.
This makes it taste very watery which is often compensated by
adding milk powders or additives to enhance the taste.
However, it is an excellent option for people trying to lose
weight and opting for a healthier diet.
 Raw Milk

• This is best known as ‘unpasteurized’ milk or one that hasn’t been

homogenized. This means that raw milk is not heated by dairy
farmers to decontaminate it for safe drinking. It comes from a variety
of different animals including buffalos, sheep, camel, cows, and goats.
• The fact that raw milk is not pasteurized raises several health
concerns primarily because it may contain harmful germs, bacteria,
and viruses that can adversely affect your health. However, advocates
of raw milk argue that it is a ‘complete’ type of milk that is void of any
harmful additives or preservatives and is in fact, natural food with all
its amino acids, proteins, minerals, and vitamins completely intact.
They also say that the heating process simply kills the basic
nutritional purpose of the milk which makes raw milk whole and
healthy.
• Lactose-Free Milk
• Lactose-free milk, as the name implies, is one that has lactose removed from it, making it a great option
for all those people who are lactose-intolerant. Lactose is a type of natural sugar present in milk that many
people are unable to digest to an extent that even a single glass can trigger digestive problems like
diarrhea and vomiting.
• Lactose-free milk is produced by food manufacturers by adding lactase to regular milk. Lactase is basically
an enzyme that helps break down lactose in the body. However, this doesn’t affect the milk’s taste,
nutritional profile, or texture in any way and it still tastes like regular cow milk.
• Just like normal milk, lactose-free milk contains all the important micronutrients like phosphorus, calcium,
and vitamin B12. It is also a great source of protein and contains about 8 grams of protein in a single 240-
ml cup.
• Flavored Milk
• This is a highly popular type of milk, especially among kids and toddlers. It is described as a sweetened
dairy drink that typically consists of milk, sugar, and natural or artificial food colorings. The most popularly
consumed flavored milk is chocolate milk, however, there are several other varieties including strawberry
milk, banana milk, and many others.
• Like any other kind of milk, flavored milk is rich in the essential nutrients required by the body to stay
healthy, namely, calcium, potassium, and Vitamin D. Research and studies have shown that children who
drink flavored milk actually consume more milk overall which results in healthier diets.
• Full Cream Milk
• Full cream milk is one with the highest percentage of fat in it which gives it the creamiest taste and texture, compared to other
types of milk that have a lower fat percentage. The term ‘full cream milk’ is also used for milk that has the same fat content as
whole milk, a characteristic that makes both the types of milk very similar.
• Full cream milk comes from the mammary glands of most mammals which makes it a highly nutritious food for all people,
especially children. A 100-ml glass of this milk contains about 3.3 grams of protein, 4.7 grams of carbohydrates, and 3.9 grams
of fat. Together they round up to approximately 66.9 kcal which makes full cream milk a great choice for those who are
counting their calories and trying to follow a healthy diet.
• This milk is also an excellent choice for making coffees since its creaminess tends to results in a super silky frothiness and an
incredibly rich taste.

• Soy Milk
• simply prepared by soaking dried soybeans and thoroughly grinding them in water. Soy milk is a variety of plant-based milk
that is packed with all the essential nutrients. It consists of an abundance of calcium and soy proteins and is highly popular
among vegans and vegetarians.
• Soy milk is often referred to as a sweeter and thicker version of almond milk and is considered to be an excellent dairy
alternative. Since its main ingredient comes from plants, this milk is naturally cholesterol-free, contains no amount of lactose,
and is also very low in its saturated fat content. It is also ‘complete protein milk’ which means that it consists of the same
protein content as whole milk.
• A study was conducted to compare the nutritional profile of coconut, almond, soy, and rice milk. Soy milk was found to contain
the largest amounts of essential nutrients which led to the conclusion that it is the second most nutritious type of milk after
cow milk.
• Almond Milk
• Almond milk is another very popular type of plant-based milk that consists of subtle natural sweetness and offers an incredibly
creamy consistency. It is a dairy-free milk product that is produced by first, toasting the almonds and then grinding them with
water until it combines into a well-blended mixture. The resulting product is rich milk that has a delicious nutty taste coupled
with a thick, creamy texture.
• Since it is nut-based milk, it has an abundance of healthy fats, namely polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fats. It is also
rich in other key nutrients like magnesium, potassium, calcium, protein, fiber, and vitamin E.
• Almond milk is ideal for those who are lactose-intolerant and wish to avoid dairy products because it is free from cholesterol
as well as lactose. Not just that but it also has a low sodium content that is great for maintaining a healthy heart. Moreover, it
is the lowest calorie option with only 30 calories in an average cup of almond milk with 0 grams of carbs and sugar.

• Rice Milk
• This is one of the most hypoallergenic options among all other milk types and also the sweetest of all. It is a type of dairy-free
milk that is created by boiling brown rice and then mixing it with brown rice starch and brown rice syrup.
• Rice milk offers a medium-rich sweet taste that is very pleasant to the taste buds. The natural sweetness of the milk comes
from the rice grain itself rather than any added sugar. Since it is lactose-free and contains a very low amount of allergens, it is
ideal for lactose-intolerant people and those who may have a great tendency to be allergic to milk.
• This milk is also fat and cholesterol-free which makes it the perfect milk choice for people battling with high blood pressure
and cardiovascular issues. However, the downside to rice milk is that it contains a very less amount of protein and calcium as
compared to whole milk. Per serving of rice milk contains about 26 grams of carbohydrates which also makes it high in calories
and sugars.
• Buttermilk
• Buttermilk is often met with great confusion since many people used to, or still believe that it is a kind of high-fat,
buttery milk. However, in reality, it is just a fermented milk product that was originally produced from the residual liquid
that is left behind from churned butter that comes from cultured or fermented cream.
• The modern or current form of buttermilk has no traces of butter in it, rather it is cultured milk that is stored and sold in
bottles. Commercially made buttermilk in today’s time is produced by adding bacteria culture to sweet, pasteurized
milk. The mixture is left to ferment for a few hours after which stabilizers, salts, and sugar are added to the ‘buttermilk’.
• The new buttermilk is a lot thicker, acidic, and Tangier as compared to the traditional buttermilk, making it ideal to be
used in buttermilk biscuits and pancakes. It is equally good to enjoy as a drink since buttermilk significantly aids in
digestion and also improves gut health.

• Ultra-Filtered Milk
• This milk is also known as ‘diafiltered milk’ and is typically produced by running the milk through a thin, porous
membrane that allows the contents of the milk to be separated. This process has been derived from the same
technique that removes impurities from water. The act of filtration allows the final product to have more calcium and
protein and less sugar content and lactose.
• Additionally, ultrafiltration allows water and small lactose molecules to pass through the membrane while proteins get
left behind. One cup of ultrafiltered milk is believed to contain 6 grams of sugar, 13 grams of protein, and 370 milligrams
of calcium.
• The texture of this milk is said to be creamier than regular milk. Moreover, it contains less sugar than traditional
flavored milk.
• Evaporated Milk
• This milk is often referred to as ‘unsweetened condensed milk’ in quite a few countries and is basically canned milk with
about 60 percent of the water content removed from it. The water is removed from fresh milk by simmering it over low
heat. The milk then goes through a homogenization process that allows it to integrate all its fat molecules together
which gives it extended shelf life.
• The process of slowly simmering the milk overheat results in a very thick, rich, and creamy final product that often
consists of a mild, caramel-like flavor. Many people refer to evaporated milk as ‘the best of both worlds’ since it
contains a very low-fat content and yet retains its creaminess. This makes it a very popular substitute for cream in the
dishes that require a good amount of cream as one of its main ingredients.

• Sweetened Condensed Milk

• This is quite similar to evaporated milk considering how the water from cow’s milk is removed to produce sweetened
condensed milk. The water-removing process leaves behind a liquid that is very dense and creamy.
• Although it is a type of milk, it is actually very different from regular varieties in terms of taste, texture, and consistency.
It tastes incredibly sweet, has a darker color and thick and creamy texture and consistency.
• Another difference between evaporated and sweetened condensed milk is that the latter has sugar added to it as a
preservative in order to increase its shelf life. While it contains some proportion of naturally-occurring sugars of the
milk, more sugar is added during the processing. However, since sweetened condensed milk is made from cow’s milk,
after all, it does have some protein, calcium, vitamin B12, and fat content.
• Due to its ultra-sweet taste and super-rich consistency, this milk is usually added to sweet dishes and beverages rather
than drinking on its own.
• Oat Milk
• Oat milk is the ultimate blend of water and steel-cut, rolled, or whole oats. The mixture is carefully strained to
leave behind delicious, plant-based milk. The straining process results in slightly thin milk, making it a great option
for coffee and pancakes.
• Oats contain a large number of beta-glucans and soluble fiber which makes oat milk an excellent drink for your
immune system and metabolism. It consists of a super mild flavor with subtle hints of sweetness along with a
watery consistency.
• Oat milk is great for all those people who have specific dietary restrictions because it is not only vegan, and
lactose-free, but it is also soy and nut-free. The presence of beta-glucans makes the milk really good for your
cardiovascular health and allows your cholesterol levels to be in control. It is equally rich in calcium and vitamin D,
making it highly beneficial for strong, healthy bones and a lower risk of osteoporosis.

• Goat Milk
• Many people find it hard to digest cow milk which has high lactose content and also consists of a large number of
allergens. Goat milk, which is produced by goats, is an excellent nutrient-rich alternative for such people
• Goat milk is loaded with essential nutrients, vitamins, and minerals and is rich in medium-chain fatty acids. It is
easily digestible, easy on the gut, and also less inflammatory, compared to cow milk.
• One of the most important benefits of goat milk is that it has therapeutic benefits for heart health where its fatty
acids help lower cholesterol levels in the body and may even help treat conditions like coronary heart disease.
• Hemp Milk
• For anyone looking for a healthier alternative to cow milk, hemp milk is an ideal option. It is excellent vegan-based milk that is produced
by crushing and soaking hemp seeds in water. The mixture is then thoroughly blended, resulting in delicious hemp milk that has a rich,
creamy consistency along with an earthy, nutty flavor.
• The consumption of hemp milk has always been associated with a lot of controversial statements, considering how the hemp plant is also
used to produce marijuana. However, hemp seeds do not contain any THC (Tetrahydrocannabinol) so there is no way that hemp milk can
produce mind-altering effects.
• On the contrary, hemp milk is an excellent source of calcium, iron, protein, potassium, manganese, vitamins, and zinc. All these essential
nutrients and components allow hemp milk to deliver a plethora of health benefits including improved cognition, enhanced heart health,
excellent skin, improved bone density, and a strong immune system, to name a few.

• Coconut Milk
• Coconut milk is one of those milk varieties that have gained significant popularity in recent times. It is a tastier alternative to cow milk
with an incredibly thick and creamy texture.
• Coconut milk is taken from the white flesh of mature brown coconuts and is completely different from coconut water. It is produced by
mixing coconut flesh water so basically, coconut milk consists of 50 percent water content.
• This milk occurs in two main categories based on its consistency, which are thick and thin.
• Thick coconut milk is prepared by simmering or boiling finely grated solid coconut flesh in water after which the mixture is strained
through a cheesecloth, resulting in fine and thick coconut milk. On the other hand, thin coconut milk is made from grated coconut flesh
that remains behind in the cheesecloth after preparing thick coconut milk. It is simmered or boiled the same way till you get a thin, water-
like consistency.
• Coconut milk is packed with several essential nutrients including calcium, fiber, vitamins, copper, potassium, selenium, and manganese.
Some of the most popular benefits of coconut milk include weight loss, improved heart health, and enhanced immune system.
• Cow Milk
• This is one of the most popularly-consumed types of milk that comes from the mammary glands of cows. In many parts of the world, cow milk is the
primary form of animal milk consumed by most people. The main reason behind its popularity is its incredibly rich nutritional profile and a multitude
of health benefits.
• Cow milk is really rich in protein which means it consists of all the essential amino acids required by the body to manufacture proteins. It is loaded with
vitamin B12 – a vitamin that is vital for healthy brain function as well as for a strong nervous system. The high content of calcium in cow milk makes it
exceptionally beneficial for maintaining strong bones, muscles, and teeth.
• On the downside though, it is high in saturated fat content and also contains high lactose which means it is not meant for lactose-intolerant people.

• Buffalo Milk
• Buffalo milk is possibly the least popular variety or type of milk due to its extremely high-fat content and the overload of calories. However, it does
contain a fair share of health benefits and essential nutrients that help the body in numerous ways.
• This milk comes from the mammary gland of a buffalo and is also a key component of a healthy diet in various parts of the world including India and
other regions of Asia. Some of its vital benefits include lowered blood pressure, strong bones, stimulated circulation in the body, and increased
protection of the heart from possible adverse conditions and ailments.
• Buffalo milk consists of large amounts of iron, calcium, phosphorus, protein, and vitamin A, which boost your immune system, stimulate growth and
development in the body, improve circulation and also regulate the blood pressure.
•  

• FAQs
• Are milk cartons recyclable?
• Milk cartons are recyclable. Most are made from a biodegradable material that is perfect for recycling. You can include milk cartons in your recycling
bin at home without any issues. There are two main types of milk cartons. Plastic milk cartons are larger and come with a handle.
• Due to the type of plastic, it’s especially important that we recycle these as opposed to throwing them away. Paper milk cartons are smaller and easily
collapse into a thin sheet. Keep in mind that this type of paper isn’t the same as printer paper; it’s closer to cardboard with strong fibers. Either way,
you can recycle these milk cartons, and even bring them in for a monetary reward in some locations.
 9 Types of Water

1.Tap water- A piped water supply, tap water is found

everywhere from the water that flushes a public toilet to the
water that comes out of your kitchen sink or cleans your
glassware in your dishwasher.
2. Mineral water-Pulled from a mineral spring, mineral water
is, as the name states, full of minerals including sulfur,
magnesium, and calcium — all things that are good for you.
3. Spring or glacier water- Spring or glacier waters are types
of bottled waters that are claimed to be bottled at the source
from where the water flows — either from the spring or
glacier.
4.Sparkling water- Sometimes referred to as
carbonated water or soda water, sparkling water is
infused with carbon dioxide gas while under pressure.
5. Distilled water- This type of water is boiled and the
steam is collected and condensed back into a liquid.
6.Purified water-  is usually tap or groundwater which
has been treated to remove harmful substances like
bacteria, fungi, and parasites.
• Flavored or infused water-is water that’s sweetened
with either sugar or artificial sweeteners, and
contains natural or artificial flavorings.
• Alkaline water-has a higher pH level than normal tap
water and contains 
alkaline minerals and negative oxidation reduction p
otential (ORP)
.
• Well water- Well water comes straight from the
ground, though it’s untreated and carries with it a
number of risks.
 Major components of an eggs
1. ALBUMEN The albumen is the clear portion of the egg, the “egg white.” It
comprises about two thirds of the egg mass and contains more than half of the
protein and riboflavin. Two thick, twisted strands called the chalazae cords within
the albumen anchor the yolk in place. Many people think they are imperfections,
embryos or annoyances; but the more prominent the chalazae, the fresher the
egg.
2.Ovomucin is a glycoprotein found mainly in egg whites, as well as in the chalaza
 and vitelline membrane. The protein makes up around 2-4% of the protein
content of egg whites; like other members of the mucin protein family, ovomucin
confers gel-like properties. It is composed of two subunits, alpha-ovomucin
(MUC5B) and beta-ovomucin (MUC6), of which the beta subunit is much more
heavily glycosylated.
3. Dextrose-present in small amount in both egg white and the eggyolk
• Cream is a dairy product composed of the higher-fat layer
skimmed from the top of milk before homogenization. In un-
homogenized milk, the fat, which is less dense, eventually rises
to the top. In the industrial production of cream, this process is
accelerated by using centrifuges called "separators". In many
countries, it is sold in several grades depending on the total
butterfat content. It can be dried to a powder for shipment to
distant markets, and contains high levels of saturated fats
• Cream is a dairy product that is composed of the higher-layer of
yellowish fatty component that accumulates at the top surface
of unhomogenized milk.  This is skimmed from the top of milk
before homogenization.
• Cream is a dairy product, a white to yellowish-colored
fat layer that one can obtain by skimming
unhomogenized milk. Once the milk is heated, a thin
layer of fat begins to accumulate on the top, which
stays afloat and this is the very cream.  It is mostly
sold grade wise, meaning according to the fat content
(thickness) of the cream. It is either sold fresh or in
powdered form or with thickening agents and
preservatives. Cream from cow’s, goat’s, or skimmed
from whey milk is used for different purposes.
 Types of cream Products
• Heavy cream: more than 36% milkfat. ...
• Whipping cream: 30% to 36% milkfat. ...
• Light cream: 18% to 30% milkfat. ...
• Sour cream: at least 18% milkfat. ...
• Half and half: 10.5% to 18% milkfat. ...
• Ice cream: more than 10% milkfat.
• Double Cream
Double cream has a very high butterfat content, around 48% as compared to other creams. It is
very rich, hence heavy and used specifically for puddings, desserts, and piping. The more
double cream is whipped, the more thicker it gets. It contains absolutely no thickening agents.
• ☂ Clotted Cream
Clotted cream is also popularly known as Devonshire cream or Devon cream. This cream has a
slightly caramelized flavor, as it is obtained by heating unpasteurized cow’s milk, which is then
left in shallow pans for several hours. The cream content rises to the surface and gets clotted. It
is used as a filling in desserts, and added in sauces and risottos, or simple scooped with fresh
fruits of the berry family. Its fat content is generally higher than 55%.
• ☂ Whipped or Whipping Cream
Whipping cream is a cream that has enough fat content for it to thicken upon whipping or
beating. Packaged whipping cream generally comes with stabilizers that hold it after it has been
whipped. Whipped cream on the other hand is nothing but whipping cream that has been
whipped or beaten. It is most popularly used as a topping for desserts, frozen milk beverages,
and fillings. The fat content for both whipping as well as whipped is around 35%.
• Half and Half Cream
The use of ‘half and half’ is quite popular in recipes that call for the cream’s flavor and texture
without its richness or thickness. In America, half and half is referred to as a equal mix of
whole milk and full cream. This cream will not whip or thicken, and the consistency will be
more like full-fat milk. It is usually used in tea and coffee. Half and half usually has 10 – 18%
fat.
• ☂ Single Cream
Single cream is also known as light cream or coffee cream for it contains very little fat, i.e.,
between 18 – 30% and is very light in texture as well as consistency. This cream will not whip
and is used to pour over puddings, in coffee, or dishes that require a very light cream flavor.
• ☂ Sour Cream
Sour cream can be both thick and light and has a souring culture added to it to give it a tarty
or sour taste and flavor. To make a cream sour, culture is added to the cream, which is then
heated to about 20°C for 10 – 14 hours. This heating produces lactic acid responsible for the
sour taste. Light sour cream too is made in the same way but has only 18% or less milk fat. It
is used in sauces and dressings, casseroles and cakes, or served on vegetables where a sour
flavor is required.
• Crème Fraîche
It is more favored than sour creams by chefs the
world over for it is thicker (with 35 to 48% milk
fat) and less tarty in flavor than the later. Lactic
acid is added to cream and under controlled
process and temperature it is allowed to mature.
It has a nutty flavor and is more heat stable hence
won’t curdle when heated or boiled, making it an
excellent choice for sauces and soups.
 Gelatin
• Gelatin is one type of protein produced by the partial
hydrolysis of native collagen. Depending on the process
used, two types of gelatin, namely type A (acid hydrolysis)
and type B (alkaline hydrolysis) are generally obtained.
• Gelatin or gelatine (from Latin: gelatus meaning "stiff" or
"frozen") is a translucent, colorless, flavorless food
ingredient, derived from collagen taken from animal body
parts. It is brittle when dry and gummy when moist. It may
also be referred to as hydrolyzed collagen, collagen
hydrolysate, gelatine hydrolysate, hydrolyzed gelatine, and
collagen peptides after it has undergone hydrolysis. 
• Cherry Mousse. A simple, no-bake recipe for Cherry
Mousse to try this summer. ...
• Lightened-Up Orange Poke Cake. Easy and very orange is
this poke cake. ...
• Jello Ambrosia. ...
• Cranberry Jello Salad. ...
• Strawberry Jello Cake. ...
• Strawberry Jello Fruit Salad. ...
• Coffee Squares. ...
• Raspberry Mousse Cake Recipe {No Bake}
 Flavouring
• Flavourings are prepared from essential oils,
such as almond and lemon; from vanilla; from
fresh fruits by expression; from ginger by
extraction; from mixtures of essential oils and
synthetic organic chemicals; or entirely from
synthetic chemicals, with alcohol, glycerol,
propylene glycol, alone or in combination, 
 What are the main ingredients of a cake?

• The most commonly used cake ingredients

include flour, sugar, eggs, butter or oil or
margarine, a liquid, and leavening agents,
such as baking soda or baking powder.