Chapter -3

DESIGN OF BEAMS FOR FLEXURE

1 RC-I Lecture Note Slides 10/20/20

3.1 Introduction
 Beams and slabs subjected primarily to flexure (bending) and columns
subjected to axial compression accompanied in most cases by flexure.
Analysis versus Design
 Two different types of problems arise in the study of RC.
1. Analysis:
 Given a cross-section, concrete strength, reinforcement size, location,
and yield strength, and compute the resistance or capacity.
2. Design:
 Given a factored load effects such as Msd, and select a suitable cross-
section, including dimensions, concrete strength, reinforcement, and
so on.
 As the analysis problem is easier, most sections in this and other
chapters start with analysis to develop the fundamental concept
and then move to consider design.
2 RC-I Lecture Note Slides 10/20/20
3.2 Behavior of RC beams

 In RC beams, the tension caused by bending moment is mainly

resisted by the steel reinforcement while the concrete alone is
usually capable of resisting the corresponding compression.
 Such joint action of the two materials is assured if relative slip is
prevented and it is achieved by using deformed bars with their high
bond strength at the steel-concrete interface or by special anchorage
of the ends of the bars.

 There are three distinct stages of behavior for a reinforced concrete

beam when the load is gradually increased from zero to the
magnitude that will cause the beam to fail.

3 RC-I Lecture Note Slides 10/20/20

Uncracked concrete Stage:
 At low loads, as the bending moment in a flexural member is so
small
 tension stress in the concrete doesn’t exceed the modulus of rupture,
 no flexural tension cracks will occur and
 the entire concrete is effective in resisting stress, in compression on
one side and in tension on the other side of the neutral axis.
 the reinforcement, deforming the same amount as the adjacent
concrete, is also subject to tension stresses.
 all stresses in the concrete are of small magnitude and are
proportional to strains (see Fig.3.1a).
 As long as no tension cracks develop, the strain and stress
distribution is essentially the same as in an elastic, homogeneous
beam & the only difference is the presence of another material, the
steel reinforcement.
4 RC-I Lecture Note Slides 10/20/20
 The "transformed section" the actual area of the reinforcement is
replaced with an equivalent concrete area equal to nAs located at the
level of the steel (see Fig. 3.1a).

(n - 1 )A s'
c fc
A fs'
s' s'

d h

A s s fs

ct f ct b
b
(n - 1 )A s

x - s e c t io n s t r a in s s tre s s e s u n c r a c k e d t r a n s f o r m e d s e c t io n


5 RC-I Lecture Note Slides
(a) 10/20/20
 Where n is the ratio of the modulus of elasticity of steel to that of
concrete (modular ratio) and As is the area of steel.
Cracked Concrete Stage:
 At moderate loads, as the bending moment exceeds the cracking
moment of the section,
 tension cracks start to develop from the bottom extreme fiber and
propagate quickly upward to or close to the level of the neutral plane,
which in turn shifts upward with progressive cracking (see Fig. 3.1c).
 the width of these cracks is so small (hairline cracks) that they are not
objectionable from the viewpoint of either corrosion protection or
appearance.
 Evidently, in a cracked section, the concrete does not transmit any
tension stresses and the steel is called upon to resist the entire tension.
 the cracked transformed section will be used in the computation of
section properties and stresses.
6 RC-I Lecture Note Slides 10/20/20
  stresses and strains continue to be closely proportional (see Fig.
3.1b).
 At this stage as the stiffness of the beam is reduced due to the
reduction in the effective area of concrete, the slope of the
moment curvature diagram (shown by B-C-D in Fig. 3.2) is also
reduced.
 The cracking moment can be obtained using the maximum tensile
stress equal to the modulus of rupture of concrete, that is: Mcr =
crI/C, where cr = 0.7fck
( n - 1 ) A s'
c fc b
A fs'
s' s'

d h

A s s fs
(n - 1 )A s
b
x - s e c t io n s t r a in s s tre s s e s c r a c k e d t r a n s f o r m e d s e c t io n
7 RC-I Lecture Note Slides 10/20/20
Ultimate Stage:
 At higher loads (close to the ultimate load),
 stresses and strains rise correspondingly and are no longer
proportional and
 the distribution of concrete stresses on the compression side of the
beam is of the same shape as the stress strain curve (see Fig. 3.1b).
 Once yielding has occurred, the curvature increases rapidly with
very little increase in moment (see Fig. 3.2).
 Eventually, the carrying capacity of the beam is reached.
 And failure can be caused either due to the attainment of the yield
point in steel in moderately reinforced beams or due to crushing of
concrete in the compression zone in highly reinforced beams.

8 RC-I Lecture Note Slides 10/20/20

 (n - 1 ) A s'
c b
fc
A s' s'

d h

A s s fs
(n - 1 )A s
b
x - s e c t io n s t r a in s s tre s s e s c r a c k e d t r a n s f o r m e d s e c t io n

Fig. 3.1 Behavior of reinforced concrete beam under increasing load

9 RC-I Lecture Note Slides 10/20/20

 F a ilu r e
R e in f o r c e m e n t y ie ld s

M
S e r v ic e lo a d

 = / y

C r a c k in g

Fig. 3.2 Moment-curvature diagram for a beam under increasing load

10 RC-I Lecture Note Slides 10/20/20

3.3 Failure Modes of Flexural Members
 Depending on the amount of reinforcing steel in a beam, flexural
failures may occur in three different ways: Tension, Compression
and balanced Failure.
Tension failure
 If the steel content of the section is small, the steel will reach the
yield strength fyd before the concrete reaches its maximum capacity.
 Such a beam is said to be under reinforced.
 With further loading, the steel force remains constant at Asfyd and
the strains in the remaining compression zone of the concrete
increases to such a degree that crushing of concrete, the secondary
compression failure, follow at a load slightly larger than that which
causes the steel to yield (i.e. Although failure is initiated by yielding
of tension steel, the steel does not fracture at the flexural strength of
the section unless the steel content is extremely small).
11 RC-I Lecture Note Slides 10/20/20
 In the final loading stages, the beam deflected extensively and
developed wide cracks.
 This type of behavior is said to be ductile since the moment
curvature or load-deflection diagram has a long plastic region.
(#Q What will happen to occupants if a building fails by this mode?)
Compression failure
 If the steel content of the section is large, the concrete may reach its
maximum capacity before the steel yields.
 Such a beam is said to be over reinforced.
 In such a case the neutral axis depth increases considerably, causing
an increase in the compressive force.
 The flexural strength of the section is reached when the strain in the
extreme compression fiber of the concrete is approximately 0.0035.
 The section fails suddenly in a brittle fashion without warning.
(#Q What will happen to occupants if a building fails by this mode?)
12 RC-I Lecture Note Slides 10/20/20
Balanced failure
  At a particular steel content, the crushing of concrete and yielding of
reinforcement occur simultaneously.
 Such a beam has balanced reinforcement.
 This failure also exhibits a brittle type of failure which marks the
boundary between ductile tension failure and brittle compression
failure.
(#Q What will happen to occupants if a building fails by this mode?)
(#Q which failue mode is safier: tension/compression?)
 Thus it is good practice to dimension flexural members in such a
manner that when overloaded, failure would be initiated by yielding of
the steel rather than by crushing of the concrete.

13 RC-I Lecture Note Slides 10/20/20

 3.4 Singly Reinforced Rectangular Section
Consider the stress & strain distribution for a rectangular cross
section of singly reinforced concrete beam shown below.
c f cd = 0.85f ck/c f cd

x C 0.8x C
NA
D d
As s Asf s Asf s
d'
b Simplified Stress
Cross section Strain Stress Distribution (EBCS-2)

Figure 3.3 flexural Stress distributions in singly reinforced rectangular RC beam

Figure 3.3flexural Stress distributions in singly reinforced

rectangular RC beam
14 RC-I Lecture Note Slides 10/20/20
  In accordance with LSD method, at ULS of collapse:-
 εc approaches εcu = 0.0035 (max strain)

f yd
 The reinforcing steel shall yield first  yd 
Es

 Ductility is ensured by means of under reinforcement.

(how?)
 At balanced failure (simultaneous failure of the two materials)
(Concrete & Steel) occurs.
 Let x b be the depth to the NA at balanced failure.
From the strain relation,
xb d  xb  cu * d
  xb 
 cu  yd  cu   yd

15 RC-I Lecture Note Slides 10/20/20

  If x < x b  Steel yields first
 If x > x b  Crushing of concrete takes place first.
Horizontal force equilibrium:
  FH = 0  Ts = CC  As fyd = 0.8 xb b fcd
 Substituting for xb and simplifying:
0.8 *  f
b  cu
* cd
 cu   yd f yd

 ( ρ= As/Ac) is steel ratio.

 However, for ductility purpose the steel ratio ρ may

range b/n 0.75 ρb to 0.9 ρb, and in some cases as low as
0.5 ρ b in ACI code, but in EBCS-2 ductility is ensured by
keeping kx max = 0.448 for 0% redistribution or even less
for redistribution > 0% .

16 RC-I Lecture Note Slides 10/20/20

  Rewriting the force equilibrium

 Substituting the value of x and simplifying

 When the above equation is solved for kx

Where :
c1 = 2.5, c2 = 0.32fcd,
kx max = 0.448 for 0% redistribution.
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  The section capacity for single reinforcement case may
be computed from  Mt = 0, when kx < kx max

 Then the area of steel required may be computed from:

 Congestion of reinforcements at the supports could be reduced by

reducing the beam support moments.
 But redistribution needs more ductile elements. Most design do
not use moment redistribution i.e. δ = Mp/ME = 1.0.
 Reducing by 20%implies δ =0.8 which in turn restrict the N.A
depth Kx . Limitation in Kx does affect ductility

18 RC-I Lecture Note Slides 10/20/20

Flexural Reinforcement for Beams as per EBCS 2:
 At point where +ve rfmt is required, (to control cracking of
concrete)
(mechanical steel ratio)

 The maximum reinforcement ratio max for either tensile or

compressive reinforcement shall be 0.04 (4% of the gross sectional
area of the concrete to ensure proper placing and compacting of
concrete around the reinforcement)
Effective Span of Beams, EC 2
 The effective span (leff) may be calculated as follows:
Leff = ln +a1 +a2

19 RC-I Lecture Note Slides 10/20/20

  Where ln is the clear distance between the faces of the
supports and a1 and a2 are as in the figure below.

20 RC-I Lecture Note Slides 10/20/20

 Alternative method using design tables for singly reinforced
Sections
1-USING DESIGN TABLES (EBCS-2)
 In the general design chart no.1 (EBSC 2, 1995), all values
necessary for design are entered as a function of the relative
moment about the center of the tension steel.
 This diagram can be used for any concrete or steel grade.
 In the zones of negative steel strains (sections entirely under
compression), however no accurate reading is possible.
 For that zone the use of interaction diagrams can be used.

21 RC-I Lecture Note Slides 10/20/20

  The following characteristic values are entered as a
function of the relative moment:

 The upper limits of the design values of the ultimate relative

moment capacities (without compression reinforcement)
about tension steel, for 0%, 10 %, 20%, and 30% moment
redistribution are shown by the broken vertical lines μ *u,s =
0.295, 0.252, 0.205, and 0.143 respectively.
22 RC-I Lecture Note Slides 10/20/20
The area of reinforcement required is determined from the
following equations:
If μsd,s ≤ μ*u,s , compression reinforcement is not required and
M sd , s N sd
As1  
zf yd f yd
If μsd,s > μ*u,s , compression reinforcement is required and
M sd , s  M *u, s
As 2 
(d  d 2 ) s 2

M *u , s M sd , s  M u , s N sd
*
As1   
zf yd (d  d 2 ) f yd f yd

 Starting from a strain profile in ULS: αc, kx, kz, μRd etc. are
determined.
 In design, the chart is entered by equating μsd = μRd, then kz is
read and As1 is determined from:
A = Msd / (kz d fyd)
RC-I Lecture Note Slidess1
23 10/20/20
Design Using Tables (Kd - Method)
 Procedure of computing design parameters using table involves the
following and the table has the following format.
Km Ks
C15 C20 C25 C30 C40 S300 S400 S460
15 17 19 21 24 3.95 2.96 2.58
- - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - -

M
 Evaluate km  Where: M in KN.m, b & d in m
bd 2

 Enter the table for appropriate concrete grade used

 Obtain Ks corresponding to steel grade & Km
 Evaluate the area of steel required as : Md
As  K s
24 RC-I Lecture Note Slides d 10/20/20
Discussion

25 RC-I Lecture Note Slides 10/20/20

3.5 Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Sections
 If the depth of an RC beam is limited due to architectural or other
reasons the section may not have sufficient compressive area of
concrete to resist the moment induced in it.
 In such cases the capacity of the section can be increased by placing
steel in the compression zone to carry the additional compressive
force.

26 RC-I Lecture Note Slides 10/20/20

 Figure 3.4 Flexural Stress distribution in doubly reinforced
rectangular RC beam
Assume that As & As1 are stressed to fyd.
Mu = Muc+ Musc
 Where: Mu = total sum of moment resisted by steel & concrete
Muc = moment resisted by concrete in compression alone
Musc = moment resisted by steel in compression

27 RC-I Lecture Note Slides 10/20/20

 Where Muc is the BM carried by the concrete and partial
area of tensile steel.
Muc = 0.8bd2 fcd k1 (1-0.4 k1)

 In which k1 = kx max, the maximum steel ratio corresponding to

single reinforcement section in case of design and

 Musc is the BM carried by compressive steel and the

corresponding tensile steel.
Musc = As1 fyd (d-dc’)
 The yielding of the compressive steel may be checked from the
strain relation as
28 RC-I Lecture Note Slides 10/20/20
Derivation
 Md = 0.8bd2fcd ρm(1-0.4 ρm)

29 RC-I Lecture Note Slides 10/20/20

 From table 1.a there are different Km values & the max. value of
Km for different moment redistribution is given and represented by
Km*.

 If Km ≤ Km*, the section is singly reinforced.

 If Km>Km*, it is doubly reinforced

STEPS
a) For Singly Reinforced Sections

1. Evaluate

30 RC-I Lecture Note Slides 10/20/20

2. Enter the general design Table No.1a using km and concrete grade.
3. Read ks from the same Table corresponding to steel grade and km.
4. Evaluate

b) For Doubly Reinforced Sections

1. This is so, when Km>Km*(is the value of Km shown shaded in
general design table 1a , corresponding to the concrete grade)
2. compute Km/Km*
3. Read Ks & Ks* corresponding to Km/Km* & the steel grade from
general design table 1a

31 RC-I Lecture Note Slides 10/20/20

5. Assume dc, (d2) & read ρ (correction factor) from the same table
corresponding to Km/Km* & dc’/d.
6. Read ρ’ corresponding to dc’/d ,then
As = KsMd ρ/d As’ = Ks’Md ρ’/d
Note:
Note: - In all cases
 Md is in KN-m
 b “ “ m
 d “ “ m

32 10/20/20
2. USING DESIGN CHARTS

33 10/20/20
 u ,s*

34 RC-I Lecture Note Slides 10/20/20

3.6 Reinforcement Cover and Spacing
Cover to Reinforcements
The concrete cover is the distance between the outermost surface of
reinforcement (usually stirrups) and the nearest concrete surface.
The thickness of cover required depends both upon the exposure
conditions and on the concrete quality.

To transmit bond forces safely, and to ensure adequate compaction,

the concrete cover should never be less than:
 or n ( 40mm), or
( + 5mm) or (n + 5mm) if dg > 32mm
Where  = the diameter of the bar.
n = the equivalent diameter for a bundle.
dg = the largest nominal aggregate size

35 RC-I Lecture Note Slides 10/20/20

Minimum cover

Exposure type Mild Moderate Sever

Min. cover (mm) 15 25 50

Refer EBCS-2, section 7.1.3 article 6, table 7.2 to define w/c exposure
condition is mild, moderate & sever.

Durability and control of crack width is related with finishing and

provision of adequate cover to reinforcement.

Nominal cover for structural elements located in the interior of the

building with dry environment and mild condition is 15 mm, example
slab; humid environment with moderate exposure is 25 mm, example
beam; severe environment is 50 mm, example footing.
36 RC-I Lecture Note Slides 10/20/20
Spacing of Reinforcements

The clear horizontal and vertical distance between bars shall be at

least equal to the largest of the following values.
a) 20 mm
b) The diameter of the largest bar or effective diameter of the
bundle
c) The maximum size of the aggregate dg plus 5mm.

Where bars are positioned in separate horizontal layers, the bars in

each layer should be located vertically above each other and the space
between the resulting columns of the bars should permit the passage
of an internal vibrator.
 

37 RC-I Lecture Note Slides 10/20/20

 Deflection limits are assumed to be satisfied when the minimum
effective depth for a particular member is

Where:
fyk is equal to character strength of reinforcement, Le is the
effective span (the shorter span in case of two way slab), a is
constant, a function of restraints given below).
Table – values of a
Member Simple End span Interior cantilever
span
Beams 20 24 28 10
Slabs:
Span ratio 2:1 25 30 35 12
Span ratio 1:1 35 40 45 10

38 * For
RC-I intermediate
Lecture Note Slides values – use interpolation. 10/20/20
3.4 T- and Inverted L-Sections

When reinforced concrete floors or roofs are monolithically with

supporting beams, T or L are created as shown in fig. below.
Hence, a part of the slab will act with the upper part of the beam to
resist longitudinal compression.

39 RC-I Lecture Note Slides 10/20/20

 The T-sections provide a large concrete cross-sectional area of the
flange to resist the compressive force.

 Hence, T-sections are very advantageous in simply supported spans

to resist large positive bending moment, where as the inverted T-
sections have the added advantage in cantilever beam to resist
negative moment.

 The variation in flange compressive stress occurs because of shear

deformations in the flange (shear lag), which reduces the
longitudinal compressive strain with distance from the web.

40 RC-I Lecture Note Slides 10/20/20

 In design, to take the variation of compressive stress across the
flange into account, it is convenient to use an effective width of
flange that may be smaller than the actual width but is considered
to be uniformly stressed (see Fig.)

b e ff

Flexural compressive stress distribution assumed in

design

41 RC-I Lecture Note Slides 10/20/20

Effective flange width (according to EBCS 2, 1995)
 beff should be lesser of:
 For interior beams T-sections
Where: le – is the effective
span length
bw - is the width of the
web.
 For edge beams (inverted L- sections)

a) thickness of the web plus one- tenth of the effective

span or
b) Thickness of the web plus half the clear distance to the
adjacent beam.
42 RC-I Lecture Note Slides 10/20/20
 When a great accuracy is not required, for example, in continuous
beams, a constant effective width (beff) may be assumed over the
whole span.

43 RC-I Lecture Note Slides 10/20/20

 The effective width for a symmetrical T- beam may be
taken as :
beff = bw+(1/5)*lo < b

 And for an edge beam, that is with floor on one side only
beff = bw +1/10lo < bi + bw (i = 1 or 2)

 The distance lo between points of zero moment may be

obtained from the figure below for typical cases:

44 RC-I Lecture Note Slides 10/20/20

Analysis and Design of Flanged Beams
Basic principle used for analysis and design of rectangular beams are
also valid for the flanged beams.

The major difference is in the calculation of compressive force Cc.

Depending on the depth of the neutral axis, X, the following cases can
be identified.

a) Depth of neutral axis x less than flange thickness hf, see Fig.
Same condition as rectangular section but, the depth 0.8x< hf

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 The flange width bf of the compression side should be
used as the beam width in the analysis or design.

 Force equilibrium gives:

46 RC-I Lecture Note Slides 10/20/20

Moment equilibrium gives: (General design chart can be used.)

b) Depth of neutral axis, X > hf, see Fig.

 In this case, x > hf, the depth of the equivalent

rectangular stress block 0.8x could be smaller or larger
than the flange thickness hf.

47 RC-I Lecture Note Slides 10/20/20

 If x is greater than hf and 0.8x is less than hf, the beam
could still be considered as a rectangular beam for design
purpose.

 Hence the design procedure explained above is applicable

to this case.

 If both x and 0.8x are greater than hf, the section has to be
considered as a T-section & be treated in a manner
similar to that for a doubly reinforced rectangular section
(see Fig.).

48 RC-I Lecture Note Slides 10/20/20

  It is convenient to divide the total tensile steel into two
parts.

 The first part, Asf, represents the steel area which, when
stressed to fyd is required to balance the compressive
force in the overhanging portion of the flange. Thus,

49 RC-I Lecture Note Slides 10/20/20

The partial resisting moment capacity as a result of these
forces.

The remaining steel area (As – Asf), at a stress fyd is

balanced by the compression in the rectangular portion of
the beam.

From force equilibrium:

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c) The resultant compressive force acts at the centroid
of the T-shaped compressed area.

From force equilibrium

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Note: the problem at hand is one of the following
(i) Analysis:
As is given
Determine Asf
Determine As-Asf
Determine N.A depth from force equilibrium.
(ii) Design:
If the N.A. is with in the flange rectangular section(use the
general design chart)

If the N.A. lies in the web:

Determine Asf and Mult1
Determine Mult2 = Msd - Mult1
Determine the required amount of reinforcement from
the two equations. (unknowns are As and x.)
Note: For -ve bending moment T- beams are not analyzed. It is
ratherRC-Ianalyzed
52 Lecture Note Slides
(designed) as rectangular beams. 10/20/20
 Thank you!

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