BETP3573 MATERIAL

TESTING AND
FRACTURE ANALYSIS
MECHANICAL TESTING
LEARNING OUTCOME (LO)

 After this lesson, you should be able to do

1.Define engineering stress and engineering strain.
2.State Hooke’s Law and note the conditions under which is valid.
3.Define Poisson’s ratio.
4.Given an engineering stress-strain diagram, determine
(a)The modulus of elasticity
(b)The yield strength ( 2% offset)
(c)The tensile strength
(d)Estimate the percent elongation

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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF
METALS
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

 Mechanical properties are of foremost importance in selecting materials for

structural components.
 A key word in discussing mechanical properties is STRESS.

σ = F/ A
 Different types of stress = Tensile / compression, bending, shear and torsion.

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5
Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial
d
F
F Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible!
Non-Linear-
elastic
d
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Plastic Deformation (Metals)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch planes

& planes still

sheared
shear

d plastic
d elastic + plastic

F
F
Plastic means permanent!
linear linear
elastic elastic
d
dplastic
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Engineering Stress
• Tensile stress, s: • Shear stress, t:
Ft Ft F

Area, Ao Fs
Area, Ao

Fs
Ft
t= Fs
F Ft
Ft lb N
s= = 2f or 2
Ao
Ao in m
original area  Stress has units:
before loading
N/m2 or lbf /in2
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Engineering Strain
• Tensile strain: • Lateral strain:
d /2
-dL
e= d eL =
Lo Lo wo
wo

d /2
• Shear strain: L

q
x g = Dx/y = tanq

y 90º - q
Strain is always
90º dimensionless.
Adapted from Fig. 6.1(a) and (c), Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
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Common States of Stress
• Simple tension: cable

F F
Ao = cross sectional
area (when unloaded)
F
s= s s
Ao
Ski lift (photo courtesy
• Torsion (a form of shear): drive shaft P.M. Anderson)

M Fs Ao 
Ac
Fs
t=
Ao
M
2R
Note: t = M/AcR here.
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OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (i)
• Simple compression:

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

F Note: compressive
Balanced Rock, Arches s= structure member
National Park
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
Ao (s < 0 here).

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OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (ii)
• Bi-axial tension: • Hydrostatic compression:

Pressurized tank Fish under water (photo courtesy

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
P.M. Anderson) s >0
q

sz > 0 sh< 0

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TENSILE TESTING
1.0 TENSILE TESTING

 The tensile test is the usual laboratory

technique for determining a number of
important material properties
Tensile strength
Yield strength
Modulus of elasticity
% reduction in an area
% elongation

BTKP 3572 14
Stress-Strain Testing
• Typical tensile test
machine • Typical tensile
specimen

extensometer specimen
Adapted from
Fig. 6.2,
Callister &
Rethwisch
8e.

gauge
length

Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W.
Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of Materials,
Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1965.)
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TENSILE METHOD & DATA

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Average
longitudinal
tensile stress
σ = F/Ao

Average linear
tensile strain
ε = δ/Lo = ΔL/Lo
TENSILE TESTING
Plastic (Permanent) Deformation
(at lower temperatures, i.e. T < Tmelt/3)

• Simple tension test:

Elastic+Plastic
engineering stress, s at larger stress

Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed

ep engineering strain, e

plastic strain Adapted from Fig. 6.10(a),

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

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Young’s Moduli: Comparison
Graphite
Metals Composites
Ceramics Polymers
Alloys /fibers
Semicond
1200
1000 Diamond
800
600
Si carbide
400 Tungsten Al oxide Carbon fibers only
Molybdenum Si nitride
E(GPa) 200
Steel, Ni
Tantalum <111>
CFRE(|| fibers)*
Platinum Si crystal
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only
100 Zinc, Ti
80 Silver, Gold
Glass -soda A FRE(|| fibers)* Based on data in Table B.2,
Aluminum Glass fibers only
60
40
Magnesium,
Tin GFRE(|| fibers)* Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Concrete Composite data based on
10 Pa
9
20 GFRE* reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
CFRE*
GFRE( fibers)*
of aligned
Graphite
10 carbon (CFRE),
8 CFRE( fibers) *
6 AFRE( fibers) *
aramid (AFRE), or
Polyester glass (GFRE)
4 PET
PS fibers.
PC Epoxy only
2
PP
1 HDPE
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTFE
0.4

0.2 LDPE 20
Yield Strength, sy
• Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when ep = 0.002

tensile stress, s
y = yield strength
sy

Note: for 2 inch sample

 = 0.002 = z/z
 z = 0.004 in

engineering strain, e
ep = 0.002 Adapted from Fig. 6.10(a),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
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Yield Strength : Comparison
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
2000
Steel (4140) qt

Yield strength, sy (MPa) 1000

Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a

in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since

700 W (pure)

since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

600

in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

Cu (71500) cw
500 Mo (pure)
400 Steel (4140) a Room temperature
Steel (1020) cd
300 values

Hard to measure ,
Al (6061) ag

Hard to measure,
200 Steel (1020) hr ¨
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500) hr Based on data in Table B.4,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
100
a = annealed
dry
70 PC
hr = hot rolled
60 Nylon 6,6 ag = aged
50 Al (6061) a PET
cd = cold drawn
40 PVC humid
cw = cold worked
PP
30 HDPE qt = quenched & tempered
20

LDPE
Tin (pure) 22
10
Ductility
L -L
• Plastic tensile strain at failure: % EL = f o x 100
L
o

smaller %EL
Engineering
tensile
stress, s larger %EL Lo
Ao
Af Lf
Adapted from Fig. 6.13,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Engineering tensile strain, e

• Another ductility measure: Ao - Af

%RA = x 100
Ao

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ASTM FOR TENSILE TESTING

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Mechanical properties in engineering material

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Mechanical properties in engineering material
Tensile Testing - Procedure

Tensile tests are used to determine the tensile properties of a material, including the tensile strength. The tensile
strength of a material is the maximum tensile stress that can be developed in the material.

In order to conduct a tensile test, the proper specimen must be obtained. This specimen should conform to ASTM
standards for size and features. Prior to the test, the cross-sectional area may be calculated and a pre-determined
gage length marked.

The specimen is then loaded into a machine set up for tensile loads and placed in the proper grippers. Once loaded,
the machine can then be used to apply a steady, continuous tensile load.

Data is collected at pre-determined points or increments during the test. Depending on the material and specimen
being tested, data points may be more or less frequent. Data include the applied load and change in gage length. The
load is generally read from the machine panel in pounds or kilograms.
Tensile Testing - Procedure

The change in gage length is determined using an extensometer. An

extensometer is firmly fixed to the machine or specimen and relates the amount
of deformation or deflection over the gage length during a test.

While paying close attention to the readings, data points are collected until the
material starts to yield significantly. This can be seen when deformation
continues without having to increase the applied load. Once this begins, the
extensometer is removed and loading continued until failure. Ultimate tensile
strength and rupture strength can be calculated from this latter loading.

Once data have been collected, the tensile stress developed and the resultant
strain can be calculated. Stress is calculated based on the applied load and
cross-sectional area. Strain is the change in length divided by the original
length.
  
COMPRESSION TESTING
COMPRESSION TESTING

 Simplistically, compression testing is the opposite of tensile testing (no necking in

pure compression). A compressive load tends to squeeze or compact the specimen.
The choice of a compression test over other types of testing largely depends on the
type of loading the material will see during application or service.

 Quite useful for materials which are brittle in tension, but have significant
compressive load bearing capabilities (concrete, cast iron, ceramics, composites,
corrugated cardboard etc).
 Many operations in manufacturing, especially with forging, rolling, and extrusion, are
performed with the material being subjected to compressive forces.
 COMPRESSION TESTING

 Metals and many plastics, for example, are more efficient at resisting tensile loads.
Therefore, they are more commonly tested using tensile loading, depending on the
application, of course. Materials, such as concrete, brick, and some ceramic products, are
more often used in applications for their compressive loading properties and are, therefore,
tested in compression. Again, it is important to choose the test that best reflects the loads
and conditions the material will be subjected to in application or service.

A specimen is subjected to a compressive load.

Carried out by compressing a solid cylindrical specimen
between two well-lubricated flat dies.
The cylindrical specimen’s surface begins to bulge,
known as barreling.
COMPRESSION TESTING

 Principles
 Compression results from forces that push toward each other.
 Specimens are short and large diameter.
 Circular cross section is recommended.
 Length to diameter ratio is important consideration

 Universal test machine (UTM)

 Size and load of compression machine are specially built.
F
 Load and compression amount are measured.

 Stress A
 Force per unit area. Applied force divided by the cross sectional area of the
specimen.

 Strain calculated by the ratio of the change in length and the original length.
(Deformation) lF l0
 EXPECTED RESULTS

Compressive stress and

strain are calculated and
plotted as a
stress-strain diagram which
is used to determine
elastic limit,proportional
limit, yield point,yield
strength and, for some
materials,compressive
strength.
COMPRESSION TESTING
COMPRESSION TESTING – PROCEDURE

 During a typical compression test, data are collected regarding the applied load,
resultant deformation or deflection, and condition of the specimen. For brittle
materials, the compressive strength is relatively easy to obtain, showing marked
failure. However, for ductile materials, the compressive strength is generally based
on an arbitrary deformation value. Ductile materials do not exhibit the sudden
fractures that brittle materials present. They tend to buckle and "barrel out".

Prior to this and any test, the dimensions of the specimen should be measured with
adequate precision using proper instruments. Once these measurements have been
taken and recorded, the specimen should be loaded into the testing machine.

In compression testing, and testing in general, care should be taken to insure that
the axis of the specimen is centered and aligned with the axis of loading.
COMPRESSION TESTING – PROCEDURE

Loading rates should be steady and continuous. Rates vary, but a general figure is 0.125
mm per minute. Loading rates typically range from 2-5 kN/min.

As in most tests of mechanical properties, the loading rate can adversely affect the results
if you get carried away. Loading continues at this rate up to approximately one-half of
the anticipated strength and, then, should be reduced to allow for more frequent data
collection. In this way, subtle changes can be observed in the specimen's behavior.

As in all of these tests, please observe proper safety procedures. Obtain and properly
wear personal protective equipment. Some of these materials exhibit violent fractures
with explosive results. 
METAL PROPERTIES LEADING TO
PROCESSING
METAL FORMING
 Depending on the type of force applied on the
work piece
 Direct compression type
 Indirect compression type
 Tension type
 Bending process
 Shearing process
HARDNESS TESTING
HARDNESS TEST

 Hardness probably is one of the most used selection factors.

 The hardness of materials often is equated with wear resistance and durability.
 In the early days of metallurgy, the hardness of ceramics and minerals was and still
is measured by scratching the surface with different type of minerals. This is called
the Mohs hardness test.

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Hardness
• Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
• Large hardness means:
-- resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
-- better wear properties.
measure size
e.g., of indent after
apply known force
10 mm sphere removing load

Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.

most brasses easy to machine cutting nitrided

plastics Al alloys steels file hard tools steels diamond

increasing hardness
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Hardness: Measurement

 Rockwell
 No major sample damage
 Each scale runs to 130 but only useful in range 20-100.
 Minor load 10 kg
 Major load 60 (A), 100 (B) & 150 (C) kg
 A = diamond, B = 1/16 in. ball, C = diamond

 HB = Brinell Hardness
 TS (psia) = 500 x HB
 TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB

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Hardness: Measurement

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Brinell hardness test
 Brinell hardness test, a 10-mm diameter ball is pushed into the
surface and optical measuring device is used to measure the
diameter of the resulting indentation.
 The diameter is then used to calculate a Brinell hardness number
(HB)
 A common hardness test for polymer and elastomers is Shore
Durometer test. Hardness is measured by pushing a spring-loaded
needle into the material.

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Comparison of hardness test

BTKP 3572 47
SUMMARY
Mechanical Properties

 Elastic deformation involves the stretching of the solid bonding of atoms without
breaking existing bonds.
 The applied load in elastic deformation once removed, the specimen returns to its
original dimension no permanent deformation
 Plastic deformation involves the breaking of existing bonds and creating new bonds
and/or surface
 Once load is removed in plastic deformation, the specimen does not return to its
original dimension, permanent deformation
Tensile testing

 Major properties could be identified on a material such as;

 Tensile strength
 Young’s modulus
 Percentage elongation

 It involves testing a specimen in tensional load until fracture

 The results obtained are usually plotted in the form of stress vs strain curve
Compression Testing

 Compression testing is the opposite of tensile testing

 It is appropriate for materials that does not perform well in tensional load
 Compressional load would be more appropriate if the material would not have a lot
of mechanical response in tensional load
 Materials such as ceramics are better in compression testing since it would
represent its properties better
Hardness testing

 Hardness involves permanent indentation of the specimen obtain information on

material’s properties
 Though permanent it is sometimes considered non-destructive compared to tensile
or compression because the specimen does not undergo fracture
 2 major scale used for measurement are Brinell (ball) and Rockwell (diamond)
referring to the type of indenter used