Chapter 3

Doing Sociological
Research

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 Chapter Outline
• The Research Process
• Research Design and Methods
• The Tools of Sociological Research
• Research Ethics: Is Sociology Value Free?

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 The Research Process
• There are several methods that sociologists use to
conduct research:
– participant observation
– survey research
– use of official records or interviews
– statistical analysis of existing qualitative data

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 Sociology and the Scientific Method
Sociologists attempt to follow the scientific method,
which includes several steps:
1.Develop a Research Question
2.Develop a Research Design
3.Gathering Data
4.Analyzing Data
5.Drawing Conclusions & Reporting Results

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 Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
• Inductive reasoning draws general conclusions by
studying specific observations.
• Deductive reasoning involves creating a specific
research question about a focused point that is based
on a more general theory or universal principle.

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Figure 3.1 The Research Process

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 Quantitative versus Qualitative Research (1 of 2)

• Sociologists conduct two types of studies:

– Qualitative studies are interpretative observations.
– Quantitative studies are usually statistically sophisticated.
• Studies test the influence of one variable on another.
• A variable is a characteristic that can have more than one
value or score.
– Independent Variable is the presumed cause of the
outcome.
– Dependent Variable is the variable that is the presumed
effect.

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 Quantitative versus Qualitative Research (2 of 2)

• Sociological research proceeds through the study of

concepts.
– A concept is any abstract characteristic or attribute that
can potentially be measured.
– The validity of a measurement is the degree to which it
accurately measures or reflects a concept.
– Reliability – A measurement is reliable if repeating the
measurement under the same circumstances gives the
same result.

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 Gathering Data
• During this stage data are collected or gathered.
– Primary data is original data gathered specifically for
this project.
– Secondary data is data gathered from an earlier study
or for another purpose, such as: national opinion polls,
census data, national crime statistics, or other official
sources.

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 Analyzing the Data
• Data analysis is the process by which sociologists
organize collected data to discover the patterns and
uniformities that the data reveal. The analysis can both
be qualitative and quantitative.

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 Drawing Conclusions and Reporting Results
• Conclusions
– Generalization is the ability to draw conclusions from
specific data and to apply them to a broader population.

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 The Tools of Sociological Research
The tools most sociologists widely use are:
•survey research
•participant observation
•controlled experiments
•content analysis
•historical research
•evaluation research

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 The Survey: Polls, Questionnaires, and
Interviews
• Surveys are the most
commonly used tools of
sociological research.
• Surveys can be administered
as questionnaires,
interviews, or telephone
polls.
Photo caption: A census taker interviews a man in his
home. Rhoda Sidney/PhotoEdit

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 Participant Observation

In participant observation, the sociologist becomes a

part of the group and studies or observes the behavior
of the group members.
Photo caption: The men in this bar, as shown by Anderson’s (1976) classic participant
observation study of “Jelly’s Bar” in A Place on the Corner, have status differences among
themselves that they create, such as (in descending status order) “regulars,” “hoodlums,”
and “winos.” Mark Richards/PhotoEdit

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 Controlled Experiments
• Controlled experiments are useful for determining
cause and effect patterns.
• Two different groups are created:
– an experimental group, which is exposed to the
factor/variable being examined
– a control group, which is not exposed to the
factor/variable being examined

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 Content Analysis
• Content analysis measures cultural artifacts of what
people write, say, see, and hear.
• Studies communications that people produce as a way
of creating a picture of their society.
– Cultural artifacts include magazines, TV programs, fairy
tales, comic books, or popular music.

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 Historical Research
• Historical research examines sociological themes
over time.
• Data come from: official records, church records, town
archives, private diaries, oral histories.
– The authenticity of the source is critical, as the quality of
the data depends on it.

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 Evaluation Research
• Evaluation research assesses the effect of policies
and programs on society.
• Policy research is when the research may produce
policy recommendations.
– Social organizations and governmental agencies use
this to influence Congress.

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Research Ethics: Is Sociology Value Free? (1
of 3)
Personal values of the researcher may affect which
problems to study, which people to observe, what
research design to select, or what type of media used to
distribute the research.
Photo caption: Here men with syphilis are being examined to determine the “progress” of
syphilis. These unfortunate men were experimental subjects in the U.S. government’s
infamous Tuskegee Syphilis Study, one of the clearest ethical violations in all the history of
science. Everett Collection Inc./Age Fotostock

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 Research Ethics: Is Sociology Value Free? (2
of 3)
• The American Sociological Association (ASA)
developed a professional code of ethics.
• The federal government also has many regulations
about the protection of human subjects.

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 Research Ethics: Is Sociology Value Free? (3
of 3)
• Researchers:
– Cannot impose harm
– Must inform subjects of the rights and responsibilities of
both the researcher and the subject
– Must secure informed consent
– Must ensure subject confidentiality and anonymity
– Must follow strict reporting guidelines

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 Chapter Summary
• What is sociological research?
• Is sociological research scientific?
• What is the difference between inductive and
deductive reasoning?
• What different tools of research do sociologists use?
• Can sociology be value free?

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 Question 1
Which of the following describes a sociological research
technique in which the researcher simultaneously takes
part in the research and observes it?
A.Survey
B.Participant observation
C.Content analysis
D.Secondary sources

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 Answer 1
B. Participant observation

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 Question 2
The _____ is the variable that the researcher wants to
test as the presumed cause of something else.
A.dependent variable
B.generalization
C.hypothesis
D.independent variable

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 Answer 2
D. independent variable

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 Question 3
Which type of reasoning involves arriving at general
conclusions from specific observations?
A.Inductive
B.Deductive
C.Independent
D.Intuitive

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 Answer 3
A. Inductive

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