Additives and Compounding

Additives
&
Compounding
https://polymerandpaint.blogspot.com
Polymer Additives
“Any substance that is added generally in

small concentration to resins in order to
alter the properties either to facilitate
processing or to change the physical,
chemical or electrical properties of end
products
Requirements
PVC/HDPE pipes
• 50 years of service life

• PVC pipes - underground
• HDPE pipes - outside
• Heat stabilizer key for service life of PVC
pipes
• Carbon black/UV stabilizer for service life
of HDPE pipes
PVC windows
• At least 15 years service life for economy

• No colour fading
• No breakage
• This is only possible due:
* Acrylic/CPE impact modifier
* Rutile titanium dioxide pigment
PVC power cable
• High temperature resistance due high

tension power (85-105 C)
• Higher insulation
• Can only be achieved by:
*Higher mol.wt. Phthalate plasticizer
(DIDP) or trimellitate plasticizer
* Calcined clay for insulation
PE insulation cable
• PE in contact with copper breaks down

• This can be prevented by use of
* Metal deactivator in addition to primary

antioxidant system
PE halogen free flame retardant
building wire
• High oxygen index
• Low smoke density
• Only possible by use of
* N-P based FR additive

* Melamine compounds
Additives=Performance+
property-preservation/retention
• All these examples clearly show:
* Performance
* Property retention/preservation/protection in severe
service environment/condition
Polymer additives essential to provide
• Performance
• Property protection
• Property preservation
LLDPE thin film
• Shark skin surface - rough surface

• Melt fracture
• Surface can be made smooth by use of
* Polymer processing aid -

Fluro elastomer polymer
BOPP film for high speed
packaging
• High stiffness
• Easy machinability
• Faster packaging speed
• High stiffness - Aromatic resin

• Easy machinability - Slip additive
• Faster packaging speed - Terpolymer
Plastic –wood composites
• Wood flour dispersion

• Higher moisture of wood flour
• Low flow
• Dispersion - Coupling agent
• Moisture control - Desiccant
• Flow - Processing aid/lubricant
Polymer additive can spoil
quality if care not taken properly
• Quality of additive quite difficult to convert into
plastic properties
• Chemical quality alone can not justify its use in
polymer
• Numerous suppliers
• Slow process of approval
• Select standard additive product from leading
suppliers and not go for cost saving
• Loss will be significantly high
Functions of polymer additive
PERFORMANCE
POLYMER
ADDITIVES
PROPERTY PROCESSABILITY
RETENTION
PRESERVATION
Additives classification
Property modifier
• Plasticizer
• Impact modifier
• Blowing agent
• Coupling agent
• Nucleating agent
• Organic peroxide
• Reinforcing agent
Additive classification
Property extender
• Flame retardant
• Heat stabilizer
• Antioxidant
• Light stabilizer
• Antistatic agent
Additive –classification
Processing aid
• Lubricant
• Mould release agent
• Anti block additive
• Slip additive
Classifications of Additives
Plastic Additives
Additives to modify plastics Additives achieve their effect

Properties by physical means by chemical reactions
Plasticizers Heat stabilizers

Lubricants Antioxidants
Impact modifiers UV absorbers
Fillers Flammable Retardants, etc
Pigments, etc.
Additives which assist processing
Additives are classified according to their specific function rather than on a chemical
basis:
Processing Stabilizers : The resistance of polymer to

thermal degradation
Lubricant (External and : Frictional behavior of melt on

Internal) the metal surface
Processing Aid and Flow : Melting viscosity of the

Promotors polymer.
Thixotropic Agents : Processing variables
Additives which modify bulk properties
a) Plasticizer
b) Reinforcing Fillers
c) Toughening Agents
Additives used to reduce formulation cost
a) Fillers
b) Diluents and extenders
Additives for surface modification
a) Anti-static agents
b) Slip additives
c) Adhesion promoters
d) Anti wear additives
Additives used for optical modifier
a) Nucleating agents
b) Colorants
Additives for anti aging properties
a) UV Absorber
b) Fungicides
Additives used for others
a) Blowing agents
b) Flame retardant
c) Bio or photo degradable
d) Foaming agents
Case Study I: Additive for chain extender
Chain Extension Chemistry
Advantages of chain extender additives
Case Study I: Chain Extender for
PET Film (Performance)
Case Study II: Additive for
Flow Promoters
Flow Mechanism
Flow Promoters
Flow Promoters
Flow Promoters
Flow Promoters
Case Study I and II:Performance
Plasticizer
or Softeners
• High boiling non-volatile solvents
• Polar with a high Molecular weight ester
type organic compounds
• Reduce internal friction between the
polymer chains
Effect of Plasticizers
• Easy melt
• Improve flexibility
• Increase softness
• Improve processibility
• Alters softening point, Tensile strength,
Elongation at break & Impact
Types of Plasticizers
• Primary- These are highly compatible with

PVC & can be used alone
• Eg.
– Phalates- Di-octyl Phthalate (DOP), Di iso
octyl phthalate
– Phosphates- Tricresyl Phosphate (TCP)
– Sebacetes
– Adipates
Types of Plasticizers
• Secondary- These are less compatible

with resin & are usually employed together
with primary stabilisers
• Eg.
– Di-octyl Sebacates (DOS),
– Adipic Acid Polyesters
– Epoxidised oil
Selection of Plasticizers
• Solvating power
• Efficiency
• Compatibility
• Flame Retardant
• Toxicity
• Low Temperature performance
• Cost
Thixotropic Agents/Antisag Agents
• For increasing the visosity of the liquid

resin, low viscous melt, paste to a limit of
pseudoplastic or thixotropic behaviour
– Colloidal asbestos
– MgO
– Silica Flour
– Bentonite clays
Extenders
• These are not used alone as plasticizers
• They have limited compatibility with the polymers
• In conjunction with true plasticisers it enhances
the efficiency of the plasticisers
• It replaces the plasticizers without any adverse
effect on the polymers
• Eg.
– Chlorinated paraffin wax
– oil extracts
Lubricants or Flow Promoters
• Material Lubricants
• External lubricants
• Internal Lubricants
Material Lubricants
• Reduces friction between moulding & finished products

• Graphites
• Molybdenum disulphide
External Lubricants
• Prevent friction between polymer melts & metal
surface
• Prevents sticking to the metal parts
• Usually high molecular compounds & have non-
polar groups
• Have low compatibility with the polymer but high
affinity for the metal surface
• Forms a thin film between the polymer melt &
metal surface during processing
• Improves surface finish & gloss
• Reduces melt viscosity & gives high output rate
External Lubricants
• Metal soaps
– Metal Stearates
– Zinc Stearates
– Calcium Stearates
– Magnesium Stearates
• Hydrocarbon waxes
• Stearic Acid & its Ca, Pb, Ba, Cd salt, Hydrocarbon & esters
Internal Lubricants
• Promotes flow by reducing cohesive forces between
molecular interfaces within the resin
• Low molecular weight compounds having polar groups
• Functions by reducing intra-molecular friction before &

during the melt formation of the polymer by promoting
flow & reducing melt viscosity of the polymeric mass
• Enhances polymer properties like heat stability, impact

strength, colour & clarity
Internal Lubricants
• Amine Waxes
• Ester Derivatives
• Glyceryl monostearate
• Long chain esters
• Fatty Acids & Amides
• Ethylene Bi stearamide
• Zinc Stearates
Processing Aids
• Additives incorporated into plastics to improve
processibility
• Improvement in mechanical properties in thermoelastic
state
• Shortens fusion time
• Prevents sticking to the metal surface
• Prevents melt fracture
• Prevents frictional heat build up which can cause
degradation
• Improves gloss & surface finish
• E.g. Acrylates & Methacrylates
Selection of Lubricants
• Metal soaps – Low compatibility with polymer, used as

External Lubricants
• Long chain Fatty Acids- Used as Internal Lubricants for
polar polymers
• Long Chain di-alkyl esters – Medium compatibility, so
acts as external & internal lubricants
• High Molecular weight parrafin wax- low compatibility
with polar polymer so used as external lubricants
Processing Stabilizer
• Prevents degradation caused primarily by

• Heat
• Oxygen
• What happens?
• Oxygen combines with polymer under high temperature to form
carbonyl compounds which leads to yellow & brown discolouration
Processing Stabilizer
• Primary Stabilisers- Antioxidants
• Secondary stabilizers – Peroxide decomposers
• Chelating Agents- Metal deactivators
• Special Stabilizers- Heat Stabilisers – for halogenated

polymers
ANTIOXIDANT
• Antioxidant retards oxidation and thus retard

the resulting ageing of the polymer
• Antioxidant used for stabilizing oxidative
degradation.
• Antioxidant as added as early possible in the
life cycle of the polymer (before drying stage of
the polymers)
• The numerous and diverse applications of
plastics today possible for development of
suitable antioxidants.
Effect of Oxidation on Polymer Properties
• Oxidation occurs in the polymer during

# Manufacturing
# Storage
# Processing
# End use
• Plastics are sensitive to oxidation
• Stability against oxidation arise from

# Chemical structure of polymers
# Difference in the manufacturing process
# Morphology (crystalline, orientation)
# Commercial; polymer contains catalyst residue and
functional groups which sensitize oxidation
Effect of Oxidation on Polymer Properties
• Virtually all polymeric materials undergoes oxidation due to

reaction with oxygen.
• Due to oxidation polymer turns to discoloration, loss of gloss
or transparency chalking and surface crack.
• Due to oxidation of polymers loss of mechanical properties
such as impact strength, elongation, tensile strength.
• Loss of physical properties such as water absorption, density
and visual
• Loss of chemical properties such as resistance to acid and
alkali, volume and mass etc.
Oxidation of Polymers
• The reaction of organic compounds with molecular oxygen is
called auto-oxidation (oxidative degradation) because these
reactions are proceeds automatically
• During auto-oxidation of polymers there are mainly four types of
reaction:
# Initiation reaction generating the free radicals
# The propagation reaction
# Chain branching reaction yielding oxidation products
# Termination reactions elimination the free radicals
from system
Initiation and Propagation
Generation of free radicals through heat, radiations,
mechanical stress, catalyst residue.
REACTION
Initiation
Propagation
Reaction of an oxygen molecules with free radicals corresponding
peroxy radicals
e.g. Alkyl radicals (P∙) transform rapidly to peroxy radicals (POO ∙)
in presence of oxygen
Propagation and Chain Branching
Peroxy radicals (POO∙) abstract hydrogen from the neighboring

polymeric segment and forms hydro peroxide (POOH) and a new
free radical site.
Chain branching reaction involves decomposition of hydro

peroxides through
 Monomolecular decomposition (a)
 Psudeo-monomolecular reaction (b)
 Bimolecular reaction (c)
Propagation and Chain Branching
REACTION
Auto-oxidation of Polypropylene
 Formation of free radicals by interaction with oxygen or catalyst residues.

 Presence of oxygen formed yield hydroperoxides and leads to further chain
propagation, chain branching and chain termination.
 Thermal oxidation of PP consist mainly in the formation of aldehyde, ketones,
carboxylic acid, esters and -lactones.
 Presence of primary, secondary and tertiary hydrogen atoms in PP makes it susptable
to oxidation.
 The formation of hydro peroxide group through intermolecular hydrogen abstraction
by six member transition state.
 Block of hydroperoxide group leads the bimolecular decomposition of hrdroperoxides
 Monomolecular breakdown of a alkoxy radicals yields to methylketones and primary
alkyl radicals.
The radical formed in the initiation, propagation and chain branching steps are not only
able to fix oxygen and abstract hydrogen but subject to molecular decomposition
reactions.
e.g. Decomposition of alkoxy radicals (PO*)
REACTION
Such reaction leads to chain scission thus decreases molecular weight of polymer
Methods of oxidation stabilization
Structural modification of the polymer (e.g. co-polymerization

with vinyl group containing antioxidant)
Capping of the end groups.
Physical stabilization by orientation of the polymer (stretching)
Addition of stabilizing additives:
ANTIOXIDANT
Classification of Antioxidant
Antioxidants are chemical entities, which retard oxidation and thus retard
the resulting aging of the polymer. Usually, they are effective at
concentration of a fraction of one percent. It is desirable to add the
antioxidant as early as possible in the life cycle of a polymer.
It is possible to use more than one antioxidant and this may give synergistic
effect more than 200%.
Antioxidant are of two types based on the function and mechanism:

1. Primary antioxidant (chain termination) – Radical Scavengers
2. Secondary antioxidant (hydroperoxide decomposing)
Primary Antioxidant
They act rapidly and termed as ‘Radical scavengers’

E.g. Sterically hindered phenolics and secondary aromatic amines
Hindered Phenolics:
 They are high molecular weight and sensitive to thermal and
oxidative degardtion due to formation of free radicals and
peroxides.
 They protect againest degradtion at high processing
tempertaure and highly efficient, low in volatality and non-
staining with wide toxicological clecareance and are effective at
a very low dosage (0.01-0.1%).
Secondary Antioxidant
They reacts with hydroperoxide to produce non-radical

products and are therefore, ofetn termed as ‘hydroperoxide
decomposers’
They differ from phenols and amines and on decomposed by
reaction with hydroperoxide, rather than containing it.
They are particularly useful in synergistic combination with
primary antioxidant.
There are two mechanism of antioxidant
1.Stabilization of chain breaking antioxidant

a. Chain Breaking Donor Mechanism (CB-D)
b. Chain Breaking Accepter Mechanism (CB-A)
2. Stabilization by preventive antioxidant.

Chelating Agents
• Prevents degradation by metal ions (impurities in

polymers- Ziegler – Natta, Redox initiators, fillers,
pigments etc.
• Eg. Organic Phosphines & Phosphites

• Higher Nitrogenated compounds – Melamine, diamine
etc.
Heat Stabilizers
• Prevents Degradation
•Absorbs & Neutralizes HCl gas evolved
• Prevents oxidation reactions
• Prevents Discolouration
•Displaces active substituents with stable
substituents
Heat Stabilizers
• Lead
• TBLS
• DBLS
• Basic Lead sulphate
• Dibasic Lead phosphite
•Organotin
•Dibutyl Tin Maleates
•Dibutyl Tin Mercaptides
• Cd/Ba/Zn
• Cd/Ba laurates
•Cd/Ba/Zn Complexes
Synergistic Stabilizer systems
• The term synergism describes the

combined effect of two or more stabilizers
which is greater than the sum of the effects
of the individual stabilizers used in isolation
• Effect of (A+B) > Effect A + Effect B
Antistatic Agents
• Prevents electrostatic charges – mostly observed
in PE, PP, PS, PA, Polyesters, Urethanes,
Cellulosics, Acrylics & Acrylonitriles
• Because of insulation properties electrical charge

may get deposited on the surface of the plastics
during processing.
• Causes severe damage to the products &

equipments- accumulation of dust
• Eg. Amines, Quaternary Ammonium Compounds,
Phosphates, Esters, Polyethylene Glycol esters
Slip & Antiblock Agents
• Reduces Coefficient of Friction
• Prevents adhesion between the film surface

Amount (0.05- 0.2%)
• Oleamide
• Stearimide
• Metal Salts
• Fatty Acids
• Natural & Synthetic Waxy Materials
• Calcium Carbonate
Selection of Slip & Antiblock Agents
• Must not spoil optical properties

• Must not interfere with the adhesion ink to film
• Must not prevent the sealing of film
• Must be colourless
• Must be odourless
• Must be non-toxic
Adhesion Promoters
• Used for bonding application like polymer/paper,

polymer/metal laminates, heat sealing of films etc.
• Eg.
Stearic Acids
Salicylic Acids
Nucleating Agents
• Forms large nos. of nuclei & reduces the size of

spherulites.
• Eg.
Sodium, Potassium, Lithium benzoates
Inorganic Powders- Clays, Silica Flour
Optical Brighteners
• Creates a Mask over the yellowness formed

processing.
• Eg.
Benzosulphonic & Sulphonamides derivatives
Vinylene bisbenzoxazoles
4-alkyl-7-dialkyl amino coumarins
Colourants
• Produces varities of coloured polymers

• Improves
• Mechanical Strength
• Specific Gravity
• Clarity
• Dyes (Soluble in Polymers)
• Inorganic
• Organic
• Pigments (In-soluble in Polymers)
• Inorganic
• Organic
Selection of Colourants
• Heat Stability
• Dispersibilty
• Light Fastness
• Chemical Inertness
• Opacity or Transparency
Anti-Ageing Additives
• Deterioration by Atmosphere
• Radiation
• Temperature
• Oxygen
• Water
• Microrganisms
• Gases
Ultraviolet Light Absorbers
• Detected by
• Loss in Tensile Properties
• Discoloration
• Brittleness
• Eg:
• Black in any form: Carbon Black, Black dye,
Black paints
• Benzophenones- for PE, polyesters
• Benzotriazoles – for PS, Polyesters
Impact Modifiers
• To enhance the impact properties of certain brittle

polymers so as to use in the field
• Eg:
• Chlorinated polyethylene, EVA are used for
PVC
• SBR for PS
Flame Retardants
• Prevent Combustion by
• Insulate
• Creating endothermic cooling reaction
• Cooling the product
• Eg:
• Antimony oxides
• Zn Borate
• Halogen Compounds
• Phosphorous Esters
• Nitrogen Compounds
Flame Retardants
• Flame retardant are required to incorporate into
organic high which are all combustible
• Techniques:
• Use flame retardant raw material for
manufacture of plastics: tetra bromo
bisphenol-A in place of Bisphenol-A with
epichlorohydrin
• Use flame retardant additives singly or in
combination e.g. halogen based, Sb based, Zn
based, Alumina hydrate
Blowing agents--such as hydrazine, which
forms nitrogen gas on decomposition--are
used to produce porous plastics like these
polystyrene products.
Additives Can
o Change the properties of plastic materials
o Enlarge the field of application drastically
o Protect your plastic against alteration and degradation
o Help to meet the recycling requirements
o Extend the lifetime of product
o Differentiate with others
Features of Additives
Should be efficient in their function.
Should be stable under processing and service
conditions.
Should not bleed or bloom.
Should be non-toxic and should not impart taste or
odour.
Should not adversely affect the properties of the
polymers.
Should be cheap.
Features of Additives
Should be efficient in their function.
Should be stable under processing and service
conditions.
Should not bleed or bloom.
Should be non-toxic and should not impart taste or
odour.
Should not adversely affect the properties of the
polymers.
Should be cheap.
Plastic Additives
Segments Focused on
Plastics Additives
Segments Focused on
Plastics Additives
Plastics Industry
Without Additives No Plastic
New Application because of Additives
Value Generation by Recyclo additives
Processing of Polymer
Composites
What are Composites
• Composites are often
classified by the type of
matrix: polymer, metal or
ceramic
• In addition, composites my
be classified by the type of
embedded material (a.k.a.,
reinforcement) fiber, particle,
whisker, flake, etc.
• Rule of mixtures says that
each constituent contributes
 c  f f  (1  f )  m to the properties of the
composite in proportion to its
volume fraction
ME 355 W. Li
Fibers dominate composite properties
ME 355 W. Li
Components of
Polymer Composites
• Polymer Resin
– Usually a thermoset
• Epoxy
• Bismaleimide
• Polyimide
– Thermoplastics
• Polyester
• Vinylester
• Reinforcing fiber
– Fiberglass
– Graphite (Carbon)
Structural RIM
• Fiber preform is placed into mold.
• Polyol and Isocyanate liquids are injected into a closed mold and
reacted to form a urethane.
Glass Preform &Resin Transfer Molding
• Glass preform can be

– Discontinuous: Roving form that can be sprayed into a 3-D preform
– Continuous: Roving form that is woven into a glass sheet and then
formed to shape (preform)
• In the RTM process,
– Dry (i.e.,unimpregnated ) reinforcement is pre-shaped and oriented
into skeleton of the actual part known as the preform which is
inserted into a matched die mold.
– The heated mold is closed and the liquid resin is injected
– The part is cured in mold.
– The mold is opened and part is removed from mold.
3.3 Processing Techniques for
Thermoplastic-Composites
1. Prepreg Layup: ……..
2. Thermoplastic Pultrusion:
3. Compression Molding & Resin Transfer Molding
4. Diaphram Forming ….
5. Injection Molding
Thermoplastic Manufacturing Processes
TP Prepreg Lay-up Process
Description
A very similar process
1) Laminate to TS prepreg lay-up,
Assembly 3) Matrix Melts, 5) De-moulding using similar tooling
Layup Consolidates
and machinery.
Typically a “hands
2) Applied Pressure 4) Matrix
on” process, relying
and Heat Solidifies on the operator’s
Significant effort has been made to automate these processes,skills.
resulting in several
methods for lay-up of prepreg tape (5 to 10 mm wide).
Automated TP
Tape Lay-up
TP Filament Winding
TP Prepreg Lay-up Equipm
ent
Application to large
aerofoil skins:
TP Filament Winding
Automated TP Tape Lay-up
Research focuses on the following issues to improve cycle times:

• Modelling applied pressure and thermal cycles.
• Matrix melting, and subsequent composite consolidation.
• Modelling solidification and crystallisation.
TP Pultrusion Process
Description
• Prepreg is fed into a preheating Preheating Heated Cooled

section, bringing TP close to Tmelt. Die Die
• The heated die has a slight
taper, gradually shaping to the
final cross section.
• The product is cooled,
taking on the required Prepreg
solid cross section. Tape or
Sheets
TP Pultrusion Equipm
ent
Experimental TP Pultrusion Line

Close-up of preheater
and dies
Research in this area involves analysis of very similar physical

processes to compression and diaphragm moulding, while
Pultrusion is a continuous process.
TP Compression Moulding Process
Description
Applied to short fibre
1) Placement reinforced compounds,
of Charge and to prepreg fabrics,
5) De-moulding and consolidated
3) Squeeze to
final dimensions blanks.
2) Mould Closure 4) Matrix Solidifies
The process can be completed with matched metal tooling, or rubber can be
incorporated, reducing cost and the risk of wrinkling fabric reinforcements.
Matched Metal Rubber-block

Moulds Moulding
TP Compression Moulding Process
Automation
Compression moulding of short fibre reinforced compounds can be

automated. However, the diagram above gives a false impression of
the effort required.
• Manufacture and preparation of the required blanks has significant cost.
• In order to achieve short cycle times (on the order of 1 minute), large
preheating ovens are required, being at least 10 m in length.
Research and process development will address all of the same

issues as for TS compression moulding.
Diaphragm Forming Process
Description
1) Load Blank 5) De-moulding
into Diaphragms
3) Clamp into
Mould
2) Heat and 4) Draw Down

Consolidate Blanks Diaphragm into Die
• Prepared blanks are placed under vacuum between two rubber diaphragms.
• Blanks are heated, softening the TP matrix, and then loaded into a mould.
• One half of the mould is used to provide the final shape of the product.
• A differential pressure is set up across the diaphragm, drawing it onto the mould.
Diaphragm Forming Product
Example products, s
TPs reinforced with:
Carbon
Fibre
Glass Fibre
Research in this area focuses on:

• Developing efficient methods for producing required blanks.
• Modelling relative deformation and flow of fibre reinforcement and
TP matrix.
• Analysis of required heating cycles.
Injection Moulding Process
Direct Mixing Description
Matrix
Fibre
Short Reinf
Fibres Pellets
• Raw materials are supplied premixed,
or are mixed in the injection moulder.
• Short fibre reinforced melt is injected
into a mould.
• Mould fills, final fibre orientation
heavily dependant on flow.
Section of product, showing orientation
• Part solidifies, and is ejected.
of fibres due to flow.
Injection Moulding Equipm
ent
Small Extruder used to prepare

fibre loaded TP pellets.
Injection Moulder utilised for short fibre
reinforcement.
Research in this area focuses on:
• Finding and developing efficient methods for mixing raw materials.
• Modelling flow and heat transfer occurring during mould filling.
• Modelling of fibre orientation evolution during filling.
Plastics and Composites Use in Automotives
• Exterior Composite Panels
– doors
• Sheet Molded Compound (SMC) with compression molding: Camaro,
Firebird and Corvette
• Polyester resin and glass mat preform with Resin Transfer Molding
(RTM): Viper
– hoods
(RTM): Viper, Heavy duty trucks)
– bumper beams
• Glass Mat Thermoplastic (GMT) with compression molding : Camaro,
Firebird, Venture, Transport,
• Interior floor pan
(RTM): Corvette
• Engine
– Sheet Molded Compound (SMC) with compression molding: valve covers,
intake manifolds, fluid containers, etc.
SMC Automotive Applications of

Sheet Molding
Compound:
Plastics and Composites
Polyester Resin and n Composite Intensive Vehicles
chopped glass Polyester resin and Glass Mat Preform
With RTM Resin Transfer Molding
8-25 -98 M41_au 25 5
SMC
Sheet Molding
Compound
SMC
Sheet Molding
Compound
Phase Transformations of Thermosets – (Gel and Vitrification)
• Thermoset resins may assume various physical forms, or phases during the
cure reaction, depending on the temperature history.
Tg  is the glass transition

temperature of the fully
crosslinked polymer.
TgGEL is the temperature at
above which gelation occurs
before vitrification.
Tg0 is the glass transition
temperature of the unreacted
components.

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Additives

“Any substance that is added generally in

• 50 years of service life

• At least 15 years service life for economy

• High temperature resistance due high

• PE in contact with copper breaks down

* Metal deactivator in addition to primary

• Only possible by use of

* N-P based FR additive

Polymer additives essential to provide

• Shark skin surface - rough surface

* Polymer processing aid -

• High stiffness - Aromatic resin

• Wood flour dispersion

Additives to modify plastics Additives achieve their effect

Plasticizers Heat stabilizers

Processing Stabilizers : The resistance of polymer to

Lubricant (External and : Frictional behavior of melt on

Processing Aid and Flow : Melting viscosity of the

Thixotropic Agents : Processing variables

Additives used to reduce formulation cost

Additives used for optical modifier

Additives used for others

• Primary- These are highly compatible with

• Secondary- These are less compatible

• For increasing the visosity of the liquid

• Reduces friction between moulding & finished products

• Functions by reducing intra-molecular friction before &

• Enhances polymer properties like heat stability, impact

• Long chain esters

• Fatty Acids & Amides

• Metal soaps – Low compatibility with polymer, used as

• Prevents degradation caused primarily by

• Primary Stabilisers- Antioxidants

• Secondary stabilizers – Peroxide decomposers

• Chelating Agents- Metal deactivators

• Special Stabilizers- Heat Stabilisers – for halogenated

• Antioxidant retards oxidation and thus retard

• Oxidation occurs in the polymer during

• Plastics are sensitive to oxidation

• Stability against oxidation arise from

• Virtually all polymeric materials undergoes oxidation due to

Peroxy radicals (POO∙) abstract hydrogen from the neighboring

Chain branching reaction involves decomposition of hydro

 Formation of free radicals by interaction with oxygen or catalyst residues.

Structural modification of the polymer (e.g. co-polymerization

Antioxidant are of two types based on the function and mechanism:

They act rapidly and termed as ‘Radical scavengers’

They reacts with hydroperoxide to produce non-radical

1.Stabilization of chain breaking antioxidant

2. Stabilization by preventive antioxidant.

• Prevents degradation by metal ions (impurities in

• Eg. Organic Phosphines & Phosphites

• The term synergism describes the

• Because of insulation properties electrical charge

• Causes severe damage to the products &

• Prevents adhesion between the film surface

• Must not spoil optical properties

• Used for bonding application like polymer/paper,