MEC551

THERMAL ENGINEERING
1.0 Introduction

1
 COURSE INFO

Code : MEC551
Course : THERMAL ENGINEERING
Contact Hrs : 3 (L) & 1 (T) / weeks
Course Status : Core

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 Course Outline

1. Introduction 3 hrs
2. Conduction 7 hrs
3. Convection 6 hrs
4. Heat Exchangers 6 hrs
5. Combustion 6 hrs
6. Refrigeration Cycles 7 hrs
7. Air-conditoning Processes 7 hrs.

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 Text book
• Y.A. Cengel, Heat and
Mass Transfer: A
Practical Approach,
McGraw-Hill, 3rd Edition,
2007.

• Y.A. Cengel and M.A.

Boles,Thermodynamics:
An Engineering
Approach, , McGraw-Hill,
6th Edition, 2007.

4
 1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Fundamental mechanism of Heat Transfer:
Conduction, Convection and Radiation.

1.2 Machines and everyday engineering

application relate to thermal engineering.

1.3 Issues concerning with thermal

engineering.
 Introductory Definitions
• Heat
– Form of energy that can be transferred
from one system to another as a result of a
temperature difference.
• Heat Transfer
– Science that deals with the determination
of rates of energy transfer.

6
 Why Study Heat Transfer?
• Thermodynamics is concerned with the
amount of total heat transfer as a
system undergoes a process from one
equilibrium state to another.
• However, the study of thermodynamics
gives no indication of how long it takes.

7
 Why Study Heat Transfer?
• Thermodynamics
– Deals with equilibrium states and changes
from one system to another

• Heat Transfer
– Deals with systems that lack thermal
equilibrium (e.g. non-equilibrium
phenomenon).

8
 Foundational Laws
• However, the laws of thermodynamics
lay out the framework for studying heat
transfer.
• 1st Law – Energy Equation
– Rate of energy transfer into a system equal
the rate of increase of energy in the
system
• 2nd Law
– Heat is transferred in the direction of
decreasing temperature. 9
Conservation of energy

10
Heat Transfer Direction

HOT COLD

11
1.0 Modes of Heat Transfer

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 Conduction
• Transfer of energy from the more
energetic particles of a substance
to an adjacent substance with
less energetic particles, ones as a
result of interactions between the
particles

13
Conduction
Conduction can take place in
solids, liquids, or gases
• In gases and liquids
conduction is due to the
collisions and diffusion of the
molecules during their
random motion.

• In solids conduction is due to

the combination of vibrations
of the molecules in a lattice
and the energy transport by
free electrons 14
 Conduction Equation
(Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction)

T Y Area (Ax)
Temperature
T1
profile
Qx
T
T2 X X
x
x1 x2

Q cond  k  A 
 T1  T2 
x
k   Area    Temperatur e Difference 

Thickness
15
Rate of heat conduction 
 Area   Temperature difference 
Thickness

dT
Qcond   kA
 (W)
dx
which is called Fourier’s law of heat conduction.

where the constant of proportionality k is the

thermal conductivity of the material.
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 Conduction Equation
(Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction)

• Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction (1822) is:

 dT
Q x   kA ~ Watts 
dx

Q x ~ Rate of conduction in x  direction W 

dT  C 
~ Temperatur e gradient in the direction of heat flow  
dx m

A ~ Cross  sec tional area normal to the direction of

the heat flow  m 2 
 W 
k ~ Thermal conductivi ty of the material   17
 m  C 
 Thermal conductivity
• The thermal conductivity (k) of a material is
defined as the rate of heat transfer through a
unit thickness of a material per unit area per
unit temperature difference.

• High value for thermal conductivity - good

heat conductor
• Low value - poor heat conductor or insulator.

• Symbol: k
• Units: W/(m·ºC)
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 Thermal conductivity
• The thermal conductivities of
gases such as air vary by a
factor of 104 from those of
pure metals such as copper.

• Pure crystals and metals

have the highest thermal
conductivities, and gases
and insulating materials the
lowest.

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 Thermal conductivity
• The thermal conductivities
of materials vary with
temperature.
• The temperature
dependence of thermal
conductivity causes
considerable complexity in
conduction analysis.
• A material is normally
assumed to be isotropic.

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 Conduction
(Example 1.1)

• The inside and outside of the

surface of a window glass are at  
20ºC and -5ºC respectively. If the
glass is 100 cm x 50 cm in size 20ºC -5ºC
and 1.5 cm thick, with a thermal
100 cm
conductivity of 0.78 W/(m·ºC). x
50 cm
• Determine the heat loss through
the glass over a period of 2 hours.

1.5 cm

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 Conduction
(Example 1.1)

T1 = 20 ºC
T2 = -5 ºC  
A = (100x50)= 5,000 cm2 = 0.5 m2 20ºC -5ºC
k = 0.78 W/(m·ºC) 100 cm
dx= 0.015 m x
50 cm
 T1  T2
Q  k  A
x 1.5 cm
20 C    5 C 
 0.78 W
m C
 0. 5 m 
2
 650 W
0.015 m
Total Heat Loss over 2 hours :
 0.65 kW  2 hours  1.3 kW  hr 22
 Convection
• Is the mode of energy
transfer between a solid
surface and the adjacent
liquid or gas that is in
motion.

• Convection involves the

combined effects of
conduction and fluid motion.
Convection = Conduction + Advection
23
(fluid motion)
 Convection
• Convection is commonly
classified into three sub-
modes:
– Forced convection,
– Natural (or free)
convection,
– Change of phase
(liquid/vapor, solid/liquid,
etc.)

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 Convection Equation
(Newton’s Law of Cooling)

• Newton’s Law of Cooling (1701) is:

y u∞ T∞

x
Heated Surface

Q conv  h  A  Twall  T fluid 


~ Watts 

Q conv  hAs (Ts  T ) (W)

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 Convection Equation
(Newton’s Law of Cooling)

Convection heat transfer is observed to be proportional to the

temperature difference

Q conv  h  A  Twall  T fluid 


~ Watts 

Q conv ~ Rate of convection in y  direction W 
 W 
h~ Convection coefficien t  2 
 m  C 
A ~ Surface area  m 2 

Twall ~ Wall surface temperatur e  C 

T fluid  T ~ Fluid temperatur e  C 

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Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient

• The convection heat transfer coefficient (h) is

not a property of a fluid (unlike k). It is an
experimentally determined parameter whose
value depends on surface geometry, fluid
motion, fluid properties, and bulk fluid
velocity.

• Symbol: h
• Units: W/(m2·ºC)

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Convection heat transfer
coefficients

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 Convection
(Example 1.2)
• Atmospheric air at a
T∞=10ºC
temperature of 10ºC flows
with a velocity 5 m/s AIR V = 5 m/s
across a tube with an h = 85 W/(m2·ºC)
outer diameter (OD) of 1
cm and a length of 5 cm.
The surface is maintained
at 110ºC.
1 cm
• Determine the rate of heat 5m
flow from the tube surface
to atmospheric air if h is
85 W/(m2·ºC).
Tw=110ºC
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 Convection
(Example 1.2)

Surface Area: A  DL

    0.01 m    5 m   0.157 m 2
Heat Transfer per unit area:

Q
q   h   Tw  T 
A
 85 m 2WC  110 C  10 C   8,500 W
m2
Total Heat Flow:

    0.157 m   1,335 W
 
Q  q A  8,500 W
m2
2

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 Radiation

• Unlike conduction or
convection, the transfer of
energy by radiation does
not require the presence
of an intervening medium.
Energy transfer by
radiation is the fastest
(speed of light) and
suffers no attenuation in a
vacuum. 31
The electromagnetic spectrum
• The theoretical foundation of
radiation was established in 1864
by James Maxwell (1831- 1879) of
Scotland, who postulated that
accelerated electric charges or
changing electric currents give rise to
electric and magnetic fields.
• These rapidly moving fields are
called electromagnetic radiation –
(can be explained as waves or
photon) - and represent the energy
emitted by matter as a result of
changes in the electronic
configurations of atoms or
molecules.
32
The electromagnetic spectrum
• The heat radiated by a body is comprised of a range
of frequencies.
– Thermal radiation is defined as the portion of the
spectrum between: 10-7 and 10-4 m.
– Visible light is the portion of the spectrum
between: 3.9x10-7 and 7.8x10-7 m.
– Solar radiation is the portion of the spectrum
between: 10-5 and 3x10-6 m.

• Electromagnetic waves transport energy and travel

at the speed of light.
c0= 2.9979 x 108 m/s
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The electromagnetic spectrum
Thermal radiation (10-7 to 10-4 m)

Solar radiation
(10-5 to 3x10-6 m)

(3.9x10-7 to 7.8x10-7 m)

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• All forms of matter above absolute zero (0 K) emit
thermal radiation.

• Although the rate of energy emission is independent

of the surroundings, the heat transfer rate is:
– Proportional to the 4th power of temperature of the
matter
– Depends on the spatial relationships of the
surface and its surroundings.

– Consequently, it is the least efficient means of

heat transfer
 Radiation Equation
emissions- (Stefan-Boltzmann Equation)

• Stefan-Boltzmann Equation:

Q rad      A  T 4
~ Watts 
 ~ emissivity  0    1.0 
 ~ Stefan  Boltzmann cons tan t
W
  5.67  10 2 4
8

m K
T ~ absolute surface temperatur e  K 

36
 Radiation- Emissions

• Stefan-Boltzman constant
(σ = 5.67x10-8 W/(m2·K4)
– The maximum amount of radiation that can be
emitted from a surface at absolute temperature.

Eb    T 4 ~ Blackbody emissive power

• Blackbody
– Idealized surface that emits radiation at this
maximum rate (σ).

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 Radiation- Emissions

• The idealized surface that emits radiation at this

maximum rate is called a blackbody.

• The radiation emitted by all real surfaces is less than

the radiation emitted by a blackbody at the same
temperature, and is expressed as emissivity of the
surface (0  ε  1)
– A measure of how closely the surface
approximates a blackbody

38
 Greybody (real) radiation
• Most objects are actually grey bodies not black
bodies.

Eb E

Blackbody Greybody

• The ratio of the total emissive power of a body to

that of a blackbody at the same temperature is
defined as the emissivity (ε) of the body.
E
  ; 0   1
Eb 39
 Blackbody (ideal) radiation
• A blackbody is defined as a perfect
emitter and absorber of radiation.
– At a specified temperature and
wavelength, no surface can emit more
energy than a blackbody.
– A blackbody absorbs all incident radiation
energy uniformly in all directions,
regardless of wavelength and direction.

40
 Absorptivity, reflectivity, and
transmission
• Whenever radiant Incident Reflected
radiation radiation
energy is incident
upon any surface,
part may be:
– Absorbed (a) Absorption

– Reflected (ρ)
– Transmitted (t)
Transmitted
radiation

41
 Radiation - Absorption
• The fraction of the
radiation energy incident
on a surface that is
absorbed by the surface is
termed the absorptivity a.

0  1
• Both e and a of a surface
depend on the temperature
and the wavelength of the
radiation.
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 Radiation Analysis
(Introduction)

• Radiation exchange
with the surrounding Ts2


Q rad      As  Ts41  Ts42 
43
 Radiation Analysis
(Introduction)
Significant radiation heat transfer from the sun due to a large
temperature difference and large emitting surface area (Ass).
Life on Earth depends on this!

Earth (Malaysia)
T = 306 K
Sun
A = 5.1x108 km2 (0.008% of the sun)
T = 6,000 K 44
As= 6.2x1012 km2
 Radiation Analysis
(Introduction)

Insignificant radiation heat transfer from light bulb, even

though there is a large temperature difference, due to the light
bulb’s small emitting surface area (Ass)

100-W Light bulb

T= 3,000 K
As= 6.3x10-5 m2

Person
T= 300 K
45
A= 1.7 m2
 Radiation Equation
(Example 1.3)

• A horizontal pipe, with a 50

mm outside diameter, is T2=20ºC
tion
maintained at a temperature a dia
R
of 50ºC in a large room
where the air and wall
temperature are kept at
20ºC. The surface emissivity
of the steel pipe may be
50 mm
taken as 0.8.
L
• Calculate the heat loss by
radiation per unit length.
T1=50ºC
46
ε = 0.8
 Radiation Equation
(Example 1.3)

T1  50C  273  323K

T2  20C  273  293K

A    D  L     0.05 m   L  0.157  L

Heat loss by radiation per unit length:


Q
L
 
        D   T14  T24

  
  0.8  5.67  10 m 2 K 4   0.157 m    323 K    293 K 
8 W 4 4

 25.03 Wm 47
 Heat Transfer Mechanisms

• Now we have
covered all 3 of the
heat transfer
mechanisms.
• Most real problems
will involved
combinations of
these
mechanisms. 48
49
50
 Combined Example
(Example 1.4)

Air blows (at 20ºC) over carbon Energy Loss by Radiation

steel [k=43 W/(m2·ºC] hot plate (300 W)
which is 0.5 m x 0.75 m and 20
mm thick maintained at 250ºC.
The convection heat transfer Air (T∞=20ºC)
h= 25 W/(m2·ºC)
coefficient is 25 W/(m2·ºC) and
the heat loss from the plate Tw= 250ºC
surface by radiation is 300 W.
(a) Calculate the heat transfer.
k=43 W/(m2·ºC)
(b) The inside plate temperature.
Hot plate
T1
51
 Combined Example
(Example 1.4)

• Heat Transfer from Newton’s Law of Cooling:

Q  h  A  Tw  T f 



 25 W
2
m  C
   0.50  0.75 m 2
  250C  20C 
 2,156.25 W
• Energy balance:

  
Q cond  Q conv  Q rad
T
 kA  2.156 kW  0.3 kW  2.456 kW
x 52
 Combined Example
(Example 1.4)

• Solving for the inside plate temperature:

T 
  2,456 W    x 
kA

  2,456 W    0.02 m 
 3.05C
 
43 m 2 C   0.75 m  0.5 m 
W

T1  T2  T
 250C    3.05C   253.05C

53
1.2 Machines and Everyday
Applications relate to
thermal engineering

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• Air conditioning
• Refrigeration
• Internal combustion engine
• Heat exchanger

What else can you think of?

55
1.3 Issues concerning with
thermal engineering

56
1.2(a) OZONE LAYER DEPLETION
• The ozone layer is a concentration of ozone molecules in the
stratosphere. About 90% of the planet's ozone is in the ozone
layer
• The ozone depletion process begins when CFCs and other
ozone-depleting substances (ODS) are emitted into the
atmosphere
• It is caused by the release of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),
hydrofluorocarbons (HCFCs), and other ozone-depleting
substances (ODS), which were used widely as refrigerants,
insulating foams, and solvents.
• A diminished ozone layer allows more radiation to reach the
Earth's surface. For people, over exposure to UV rays can lead
to skin cancer, cataracts, and weakened immune systems.
Increased UV can also lead to reduced crop yield and
disruptions in the marine food chain . (Ref: )
OZONE LAYER DEPLETION
OZONE LAYER DEPLETION
OZONE LAYER DEPLETION
What can be done?

?
 1.2(b) Global Warming
• Green House
Effect
• GHGs
 GREEN HOUSE EFFECT

• Glass transmits over 90 percent of radiation in the

visible range but not the longer-wavelength (infrared
regions)
• Radiation emitted by surfaces at room temperature falls
in the infrared region.
• Consequently glass allows the solar radiation to enter
but does not allow the infrared radiation from the
interior surfaces to escape.
• This causes a rise in the interior temperature as a
result of the energy buildup known as the greenhouse
effect,
 GREEN HOUSE EFFECT

• The greenhouse effect is also experienced on a

larger scale on earth.
• The surface of the earth, which warms up during
the day as a result of the absorption of solar
energy, cools down at night by radiating its
energy into deep space as infrared radiation.
• The combustion gases such as CO2 and water
vapor in the atmosphere transmit the bulk of the
solar radiation but absorb the infrared radiation
emitted by the surface of the earth.
• Thus, there is concern that the energy trapped
on earth will eventually cause global warming
and thus drastic changes in weather patterns.
GREEN HOUSE EFFECT
 GHGs
• The major greenhouse gases in the atmosphere are
carbon dioxide (CO2), methane, (CH4), nitrous oxide
(N2O), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and ozone (O3).
Atmospheric water vapour (H2O) also makes a large
contribution to the natural greenhouse
• Global atmospheric concentrations of CO2, CH4 and
N2O have increased markedly as a result of human
activities since 1750 and now far exceed pre-
industrial values
• The global increases in CO2 concentration are due
primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change,
while those of CH4 and N2O are primarily due to
agricultural/industrial activities.
GHGs concentrations
Global Warming
 MAJOR STEP IN CO2 REDUCTION

• Improve Energy Management : New (non

fossil) resources & Efficiency in utilization.

• Land & Forest usage: Sustainable

Development Policy.
CARBON NEUTRAL TARGET
1.3 RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES
 RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES

• Renewable energy is energy which comes

from natural resources such as sunlight,
wind, rain, tides, and geothermal heat,
biomass etc. which are renewable (naturally
replenished).

• In 2010, only about 18% of global final energy

consumption came from renewables (Ref: )
 WIND ENERGY FOR
ELECTRICAL POWER GENERATION
• Airflows can be used to run wind turbines.
• Modern wind turbines range from around
600 kW to 5 MW of rated power. Turbines with
rated output of 1.5–3 MW have become the
most common for commercial use.

• In Malaysia, wind energy is not technically

commercially viable resource due to low
average wind speed. – may be used in micro
application.
DIRECT SOLAR ENERGY
• Solar energy could be harnessed by: Actively
-Photovoltaic (PV) cells, or Passively (absorbed by
building materials etc)

• Although solar energy is sufficient to meet the entire

energy needs of the world, currently it is not economical
to do so because of the low concentration of solar
energy on earth ( W/m2) and the high capital cost of
harnessing it due to low conversion efficiency.

• High potential from emerging technologies

Solar Thermal

80
 Solar Thermal
Concentrated Dish Solar Tower Plant

81
Solar Tower

82
 Biomass
• Biomass - (plant material, non-fossil), organic
materials which can be burned to produce energy or
converted into fuels or other products.

• Biomass is a renewable energy source because the

energy it contains comes from the sun. Through the
process of photosynthesis, plants capture the sun's
energy.
 BIOMASS & BIOFUEL

Two approaches to biomass

as fuel :
• growing plants specifically
for energy or using the
residue from plants used for
other things. 
• as bio-fuel for petroleum
subtitute
GEO-THERMAL
 Geothermal
• Geothermal energy is energy obtained
by tapping the heat of the earth itself,
either from kilometers deep into the
Earth's crust, or in some places of the
globe from some meters, in geothermal
heat pump
HYDRO
 Hydro
• Hydroelectric energy is a term usually
reserved for large-scale hydroelectric dams .
• Micro hydro systems are hydroelectric power
installations that typically produce up to
100 kW of power .
• Ocean energy describes all the technologies
to harness energy from the ocean/sea. This
includes marine current power, ocean
thermal energy conversion (OTEC), and tidal
power.
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
 Sustainable Development
• Sustainable development is a pattern of
resource use that aims to meet human needs
while preserving the environment so that
these needs can be met not only in the
present, but also for future generations.

• Sustainable development can be

conceptually devided into three constituent
parts: environmental sustainability,
economic sustainability and sociopolitical
sustainability
 Energy Recovery
• Most heat engines convert only approximately 20% to 50% of the
supplied energy into mechanical work whereas the remaining
energy is lost.
• Many scope for technologies to recover wasted energy that takes
the form of heat discharge from exhaust or cooling water,
unburned fuel and thermal transfer.
• There are many waste heat recovery systems which were designed
and used on large scale power generators. For example, some
industries that use process heat and consume a large amount of
electrical power exploit a cogeneration plant in their Rankine or
Brayton engine cycle.
• Another method of optimising energy recovery in industrial power
generator is by topping the Brayton engine cycle on Rankine
engine cycle. In this combined cycle, the latent energy from the
gas turbine exhaust is recovered by transferring to the steam
energy in a waste heat exchanger (WHE) that has replaced the
boiler. 91