Integration Schemes

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Local coordinate systems

Introduced quad 2D elements

  1   1
 1 4 3
y 3
  1 
4   1


2

1  1 1   1 2
  1 x
Element in Global Coordinates Element in Local Coordinates
 km   t  wi det J i   BT  D B i
nip

i 1
Solved with Gaussian Quad.
 Integration Schemes
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Last Class Review

Gaussian Quadrature minimises the error associated with

numerical integration. 
4 3
The error due to quadrature can only
be minimised in accordance with the  1 1  1 1
 ,   , 
order of the problem.  3 3  3 3


For example: a linear quad element only  1

1
, 
 1 1
 , 
requires a linear quadrature scheme
3 3
  3 3

to minimise the error.

1 2

In 2D, a linear quadrature scheme

requires 4 integration points. Fully Integrated
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Reduced Integration Scheme

What about a lower-order integration scheme?

Reduced Integrated

4 3

 0,0 

1 2

Integration scheme order one less than the element order

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Reduced Integration Scheme

What about a lower-order integration scheme?

Reduced Integration

ux ux

Change in width at Therefore strain & stress

integration point is are present, and there is
detected.  0,0 resistance to deformation.

ux ux

Compression/tension is represented identically to a fully integrated

element.
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Reduced Integration Scheme

Let’s look at bending the reduce integration element.

In pure bending, the upper and lower nodes displace equal an
opposite amounts

No change in length is No strain or stress are

observed at the detected in the element.
integration point either This deformation requires
vertically or horizontally. zero applied force!

HOURGLASSING
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Hourglassing

Hourglassing is also known as a zero-energy mode shapes.

Often present due to point loads, or in dynamic simulations.

There presence is will often spread throughout a mesh as the

hourglass shape is compatibly symmetric and can tessellate and
will propagate.
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Hourglass Control

How can hourglassing be combated?

More elements in Greatly increases

the direction of DoF and
bending. computational cost.

This can also lead to elements with high aspect ratios

(width/height), which results in poorly conditioned stiffness
matrices and poor strain resolution.
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Hourglass Control

As hourglassing requires no loads, only very small resistances are

required to remove hourglass shapes.

Very small spring Hourglass mode shapes

stiffness are added into now require force to
the element stiffness generate, although that
matrix. force is non-physical
and requires energy.
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Hourglass Control

As hourglass requires no loads, only very small resistances are

required to remove hourglass shapes.
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Fully Integrated Linear Elements

What occurs when a fully integrated element is bent.

In pure bending, the upper and lower nodes displace equal an
opposite amounts
As lines between
integration points is not
Horizontal deformation is orthogonal, shear is
detected at integration detected. This is non-
points, hence physical, and purely due
hourglassing is resisted. to the element type
 90

SHEAR LOCKING
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Fully Integrated Linear Elements

SHEAR LOCKING
Results in overly stiff behaviour in bending.
Strain energy is exerted in the non-physical shear
strain of the element, rather than bending strains.
Effect is larger than that of hourglass control, as
shear locking stiffness is similar order of
element stiffness.

 90
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Quadratic Elements

As quadratic elements have second order functions of

displacement with position, bending strains are properly observed
for both reduced and fully integrated schemes.

No change in length of line

∴ εy = 0

Normals remain orthogonal

∴ γxy = 0

Fully integrated quadratics will have a

more accurate approximation of the
stiffness matrix than reduced integration
elements for non-regular shapes.
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Incompatible Mode Elements

Incompatible mode element are first-order elements with a modified

formulation to assist in modelling element bending.

εx, εy γxy
εx, εy γxy εx, εy γxy
Similar to
Accurate linear Inaccurate
elements
Similar results to quadratic elements with regular meshes, low-distortion
elements, though significantly computationally cheaper.
Adds in an “incompatible mode” shape function to each node, which assist in
modelling bending behaviour.
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Bending Summary
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Meshing Tips

Higher resolutions of geometry and the stress field is required in

areas of high stress gradient (not necessarily high stress values).
High stress gradients typically occur at stress raisers.
Quadratic (second order)
elements will out perform first-
order elements in areas of high
stress gradients.
Reduced integration 2nd order
elements will be more
computationally efficient that
fully integrated elements and
provide near identical results.
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Meshing Tips

The mid-span node of second order elements can be utilised to

approximate curved geometry (n.b. quadratic approximation).

As such curved edges and rounded features modelled with quadratic

elements require fewer elements than with linear elements.
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Element Shape

It is ideal to have elements which are regular and appear

undistorted from their ideal shape

Ideal Reasonable Poor

Less accurate when shape is distorted and irregular (less regular

stiffness matrices and inaccurate Gaussian Quadrature).
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Element Distortion

Undistorted elements will perform more accurately than distorted

elements

Poor
High
Aspect
Skewness
Ratio
90
 90
Undistorted Distorted
First-order quads and second-order triangular elements are less
sensitive to distortions.
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Element Order Summary

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Stress Raiser Example

Low-distortion, second order, reduced integration quadrilateral

(and hexahedral) elements can provide high accuracy in stress
concentrations even at relatively coarse sizes.
Quadrilateral Element
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Example Problem

1.5
 
2

4
 
y 1.5

1
 
0.5
2
 
0.1
x
 1 1
Find the strain displacement matrix at  ,    , 
 3 3