Mushonga - Eng Phys M Dim An

CUPY 106/ CUMS102 Engineering Physics
Newtonian Mechanics
• Objectives:
To cover Measurement and Dimensional analysis
Learning Outcomes:
After this session, students are expected to comprehend the various
measurement techniques, dimensions involved and methodologies.
Newtonian Mechanics
Measurement
The process of measurement is basically a comparison
process. To measure a physical quantity, we have to find
out how many times a standard amount of that physical
quantity is present in the quantity being measured.
The number thus obtained is known as the magnitude
and the standard chosen is called the unit of the physical
quantity.
Newtonian Mechanics
Measurement
Newtonian Mechanics
Measurement
Newtonian Mechanics
Measurement: Vernier scales and micrometers
Lengths can be measured with a ruler to an accuracy
of about 1mm. Some investigations may need a
more accurate measurement of length, which can be
achieved by using Vernier calipers or a
micrometer screw gauge.
Newtonian Mechanics
Measurement: Vernier scales and micrometers
Newtonian Mechanics
Vernier calipers
• The calipers shown above uses a Vernier scale.
• The simplest type enables a length to be measured to
0.01cm.
• It is a small sliding scale which is 9mm long but divided
into 10 equal divisions
Newtonian Mechanics
•Vernier
calipers
1 vernier division = mm
= 0.9mm
= 0.09cm
• One end of the length to be measured is made to coincide
with the zero of the millimeter scale and the other end
with the zero of the Vernier scale
Newtonian Mechanics
Vernier calipers
The length of the object in Figure 1.11b is between 1.3cm
and 1.4cm. The reading to the second place of decimals is
obtained by finding the Vernier mark which is exactly
opposite (or nearest to) a mark on the millimeter scale.
In this case it is the 6th mark and the length is 1.36cm,
since
Newtonian Mechanics
Vernier calipers
Newtonian Mechanics
•Vernier
calipers
• Vernier scales are also used on barometers, travelling

microscopes and spectrometers.
Newtonian Mechanics
Vernier calipers exercises:
What are the readings on the Vernier scales in following
Figures?
Newtonian Mechanics
Vernier calipers exercises:
Newtonian Mechanics
Micrometre screw gauge
Newtonian Mechanics
•Micrometre
screw gauge
• This measures very small objects to 0.001cm.
• One revolution of the drum opens the accurately flat,
parallel jaws by one division on the scale on the shaft of
the gauge; this is usually mm, i.e. 0.05 cm.
• If the drum has a scale of 50 divisions round it, then
rotation of the drum by one division opens the jaws by
0.05/50 = 0.001 cm
• A friction clutch ensures that the jaws exert the same
force when the object is gripped.
Newtonian Mechanics
Newtonian Mechanics
The object shown in Figure 1.12 has a length of 2.5 mm
on the shaft scale + 33 divisions on the drum scale
= 0.25 cm + 33(0.001) cm
= 0.283 cm
Newtonian Mechanics
• Before making a measurement, check to ensure that the
reading is zero when the jaws are closed.
• Otherwise the zero error must be allowed for when the
reading is taken.
Newtonian Mechanics
Micrometre screw gauge: exercises
What are the readings on the micrometer screw gauges in the
following Figures
Newtonian Mechanics
Micrometre screw gauge: exercises
Newtonian Mechanics
Unit
The unit of a physical quantity is an arbitrarily chosen
standard which is widely accepted by the society and in
terms of which other quantities of similar nature may be
measured.
Newtonian Mechanics
Standard
The actual physical embodiment of the unit of a physical
quantity is known as a standard of that physical quantity.
• To express any measurement made we need the
numerical value (n) and the unit (μ). Measurement of
physical quantity = Numerical value x Unit
For example: Length of a rod = 8 m
where 8 is numerical value and m (meter) is unit of length
Newtonian Mechanics
Fundamental Physical Quantity/Units
• It is an elementary physical quantity, which does not require any
other physical quantity to express it.
• It means it cannot be resolved further in terms of any other
physical quantity.
• It is also known as basic physical quantity.
• The units of fundamental physical quantities are called
fundamental units.
• For example, in M. K. S. system, Mass, Length and Time expressed
in kilogram, metre and second respectively are fundamental units.
Newtonian Mechanics
•Derived
Physical Quantity/Units
• All those physical quantities, which can be derived from
the combination of two or more fundamental quantities or
can be expressed in terms of basic physical quantities,
are called derived physical quantities.
• The units of all other physical quantities, which can be
obtained from fundamental units, are called derived
units.
• For example, units of velocity, density and force are , ,
respectively and they are examples of derived units.
Newtonian Mechanics
Systems of Units
Earlier three different units systems were used in different countries. These were
CGS, FPS and MKS systems. Now-a-days internationally SI system of units is
followed. In SI unit system, seven quantities are taken as the base quantities.
i. CGS System. Centimetre, Gram and Second are used to express length, mass and
time respectively.
ii. FPS System. Foot, pound and second are used to express length, mass and time
respectively.
iii. MKS System. Length is expressed in metre, mass is expressed in kilogram and
time is expressed in second. Metre, kilogram and second are used to express
length, mass and time respectively.
iv. SI Units. Length, mass, time, electric current, thermodynamic temperature,
Amount of substance and luminous intensity are expressed in metre, kilogram,
second, ampere, kelvin, mole and candela respectively.
Newtonian Mechanics
Definitions of Fundamental Units
Base Name Symbol Definition

Quantity
Length metre The metre is defined as the length of the path travelled by light in a vacuum
in 1/299 792 458 of a second. The current definition was adopted in 1983
and slightly modified for the sake of precision in 2019.
Mass kilogram In 1799, the platinum Kilogramme des Archives replaced it as the standard
of mass. In 1889, a cylinder of platinum-iridium, the International
Prototype of the Kilogram (IPK) became the standard of the unit of mass for
the metric system, and remained so until 2019. The kilogram is now defined
in terms of the second and the metre, based on fixed fundamental
constants of nature.
Time second The duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of radiation corresponding to the
transition between two hyperfine levels of the ground state of caesium-133
Electric Current ampere the basic unit of electrical current in the
International System of Units (SI),equivalent to one
coulomb per second, formally defined to be the
constant current which if maintained in two straight
parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible
circular cross section, and placed one meter apart in
vacuum, would produce between these conductors a
force equal to 2 × newton per meter of length
Thermodynamic kelvin the
the basic
basic SI
SI unit
unit of
of thermodynamic
thermodynamic temperature;
temperature; the
the
fraction
fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature
1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of
of
Temperature the triple point of water
the triple point of water
Amount A mole of a substance or a mole of particles is defined as
Amount of
of Substance
Substance mole
mole exactly 6.02214076× particles, which may be atoms,
molecules, ions, or electrons. The current definition was
adopted in November 2018 as one of the seven SI base
units, revising the previous definition that specified it as
the number of atoms in 12 grams of carbon-12 (), an
isotope of carbon.
Luminous defined as the luminous intensity in a given direction of a
Luminous Intensity
Intensity candela
candela source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency
540 × hertz and has a radiant intensity in that same
direction of 1/683 watt per steradian (unit solid angle).
Newtonian Mechanics
Advantages of SI Unit System
i. It is internationally accepted
ii. It is a rational unit system,
iii. It is a coherent unit system,
iv. It is a metric system,
v. It is closely related to CGS and MKS systems of units
vi. Uses decimal system, hence is more user friendly
Newtonian Mechanics
Dimensions
• The dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers to which the fundamental
units of mass, length and time must be raised to represent the given physical
quantity.
• It is important to realize that it only makes sense to add the same sort of
quantities e.g. area may be added to area but area may not be added to
temperature!
• These considerations lead to a powerful method to analyze scientific equations
called dimensional analysis.
Newtonian Mechanics
Dimensional Formula
• The dimensional formula of a physical quantity is an expression

telling us how and which of the fundamental quantities enter into
the unit of that quantity.
• It is customary to express the fundamental quantities by a capital
letter, e.g., length (L), mass (M), time (T), electric current (I),
temperature (K) and luminous intensity (C). We write appropriate
powers of these capital letters within square brackets to get the
dimensional formula of any given physical quantity.
Newtonian Mechanics
•
Dimensional Formula
• For example an area can be expressed as length
multiplied by length.
• Therefore the dimensions of the area are .
• A given area could be expressed in the S.I units of square
meters or in any appropriate units.
• In some equations, symbols appear which do not have any
associated dimensions e.g. in the formula for the area of a
circle ,  is just a number and does not have a dimension.
Newtonian Mechanics
Applications of Dimensions
The concept of dimensions and dimensional formulae are put to the following
uses:
i. Checking the results obtained
ii. Conversion from one system of units to another
iii. Deriving relationships between physical quantities
iv. Scaling and studying of models.
• The underlying principle for these uses is the principle of homogeneity of
dimensions.
• According to this principle, the ‘net’ dimensions of the various physical quantities
on both sides of a permissible physical relation must be the same; also only
dimensionally similar quantities can be added to or subtracted from each other.
Newtonian Mechanics
Applications of Dimensions
Newtonian Mechanics
Dimensions: exercises
Calculate the dimensions of the following quantities:
i. Volume
ii. Acceleration
iii. Speed
iv. Density
Newtonian Mechanics
•Dimensions:
solutions
Volume is given by multiplying three lengths together
Dimension of volume
So [Volume]=
The S.I Units of volume are cubic meters
Newtonian Mechanics
•
Dimensions: solutions
Acceleration is the rate of change of speed with respect to time.
Dimension of acceleration
So [acceleration]=
The S.I Units of acceleration are meters per second
squared
Newtonian Mechanics
•
Speed is the rate of change of distance with respect to time
Dimensions of speed
So [Speed]=
The S.I units of speed are meters per second
Newtonian Mechanics
•
Density is the mass per unit volume, so using the
dimensions we get:
Dimensions of d
So [Density]=
The S.I units of density are kilograms per cubic meter.
Newtonian Mechanics
Limitations of Dimensional Analysis
The method of dimensions has the following limitations:
i. by this method the value of dimensionless constant cannot be calculated.
ii. by this method the equation containing trigonometric, exponential and logarithmic
terms cannot be analyzed.
iii. if a physical quantity in mechanics depends on more than three factors, then relation
among them cannot be established because we can have only three equations by
equalizing the powers of M, L and T.
iv. it doesn’t tell whether the quantity is vector or scalar.
Newtonian Mechanics
Significant Figures
• The significant figures are a measure of accuracy of a
particular measurement of a physical quantity.
• Significant figures in a measurement are those digits in a
physical quantity that are known reliably plus the first
digit which is uncertain.
Newtonian Mechanics
The Rules for Determining the Number of Significant Figures
i. All non-zero digits are significant.
ii. All zeroes between non-zero digits are significant.
iii. All zeroes to the right of the last non-zero digit are not significant in numbers without decimal point.
iv. All zeroes to the right of a decimal point and to the left of a non-zero digit are not significant.
v. All zeroes to the right of a decimal point and to the right of a non-zero digit are significant.
vi. In addition and subtraction, we should retain the least decimal place among the values operated, in the result.
vii. In multiplication and division, we should express the result with the least number of significant figures as
associated with the least precise number in operation.
viii. If scientific notation is not used:
a. For a number greater than 1, without any decimal, the trailing zeroes are not significant.
b. For a number with a decimal, the trailing zeros are significant.
Newtonian Mechanics
Significant Figures
• For example, a value of 4.5 for a measurement has
two significant figures; 0.0385 has three significant
figures, 3 being the most significant and 5 the least,
i.e. it is the one we are least sure about since it might
be 4 or it might be 6. Perhaps it had to be estimated
by the experimenter because the reading was between
two marks on a scale
Newtonian Mechanics
Significant Figures
• When doing a calculation your answer should have the same number of
significant figures as the measurements used in the calculation.
• For example, if your calculator gave an answer of 3.4185062, this
would be written as 3.4 if the measurements had two significant
figures.
• It would be written as 3.42 for three significant figures.
• Note that in deciding the least significant figure you look at the next
figure to the right.
• If it is less than 5 you leave the least significant figure as it is (hence
3.41 becomes 3.4) but if it equals or is greater than 5 you increase the
least significant figure by 1 (hence 3.418 becomes 3.42).
Newtonian Mechanics
Error
• The measured value of the physical quantity is usually different
from its true value.
• The result of every measurement by any measuring instrument is
an approximate number, which contains some uncertainty.
• This uncertainty is called error.
• Every calculated quantity, which is based on measured values, also
has an error
Newtonian Mechanics
Causes of Errors in Measurement
Following are the causes of errors in measurement:
Least Count Error. The least count error is the error associated with
the resolution of the instrument. Least count may not be sufficiently
small. The maximum possible error is equal to the least count.
Instrumental Error. This is due to faulty calibration or change in
conditions (e.g., thermal expansion of a measuring scale). An
instrument may also have a zero error. A correction has to be applied.
Random Error. This is also called chance error. It makes to give
different results for same measurements taken repeatedly. These
errors are assumed to follow the Gaussian law of normal distribution.
Newtonian Mechanics
Newtonian Mechanics
Accidental Error. This error gives too high or too low results.
Measurements involving this error are not included in calculations.
Systematic Error. The systematic errors are those errors that tend
to be in one direction, either positive or negative. Errors due to air
buoyancy in weighing and radiation loss in calorimetry are
systematic errors. They can be eliminated by manipulation. Some of
the sources of systematic errors are:
i. instrumental error
ii. imperfection in experimental technique or procedure
iii. personal errors
Newtonian Mechanics
Absolute Error, Relative Error and Percentage Error
Newtonian Mechanics
Absolute Error, Relative Error and Percentage Error
Newtonian Mechanics
Combination of Errors
Newtonian Mechanics

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CUPY 106/ CUMS102 Engineering Physics

• Vernier scales are also used on barometers, travelling

Base Name Symbol Definition

• The dimensional formula of a physical quantity is an expression

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