Chapter 2.

Orbits and Launching Methods

第二章 衛星軌道與發射方法

亞洲大學
資訊工程學系碩士班

呂克明教授
二○○六年九月二十五日

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 Chapter 2. Orbits and Launching Methods
(第二章 衛星軌道與發射的方法 )

 Introduction ( 緒言 )
 Kepler’s Laws ( 刻卜勒定律 )
 Definitions of Terms for Earth-Orbiting Satellite ( 繞地軌道名詞之
定義 )
 Orbital Elements ( 軌道元件 )
 Apogee and Perigee Heights ( 遠地點與近地點之高度 )
 Orbital Perturbations ( 軌道的擾亂 )
 Homework problems ( 習題 )

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 Introduction
(緒言 )

 Satellites which orbit the earth follow the same laws that govern the
motion of the planets around the sun.
 Johannes Kepler ( 刻卜勒 ,1571-1630) derived three (3) laws
describing planetary motion.
 Sir Isaac Newton ( 牛頓 ,1642-1727) derived laws of mechanics and
developed the theory of gravitation.
 Edmond Halley ( 哈雷 ,1656-1742) with Newton’s help to predict
the next coming Comet Halley. Mark Twain ( 馬克吐溫 , 1835-
1910) was born and died in years that Comet Halley came
closely to the earth.
 The more massive of the two bodies is referred to as the primary, the
other, the secondary, or satellite.

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 Kepler’s Law
( 刻卜勒定律 )
 First Law:
 The path followed by a satellite around the primary will be an

ellipse.
 Barycenter ( 重心的相異根 ) is always centered on one of the

foci.
 In our specific case, the center of mass coincides with the

center of the earth and therefore always at one of the foci.

 Second Law:
 For equal time intervals, a satellite will sweep out equal areas in

its orbital plane, focused at the barycenter.

 Third Law:
 The square of the period time of orbit is proportional to the cube

of the mean distance between the two bodies.

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 Definitions of Terms for Earth-Orbiting
(繞地軌道名詞之定義 )
 Apogee ( 遠地點 ): The point farthest from earth.
 Perigee ( 近地點 ): The point of closest approach to earth.
 Line of apsides ( 遠近線 ): The line joining the perigee and apogee
through the center of earth.
 Ascending node ( 昇交點 ): The point where the orbit crosses the
equatorial plane going from south to north.
 Descending node ( 降交點 ): The point where the orbit crosses the
equatorial plane going from north to south.
 Line of nodes ( 交點線 ): The line joining the ascending and
descending nodes through the center of earth.
 Inclination ( 傾斜角 ): The angle between the orbital plane and the
earth’s equatorial plane.

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 Definitions of Terms for Earth-Orbiting
(繞地軌道名詞之定義 )(continued)
 Prograde orbit ( 順行軌道 ): An orbit in which the satellite moves in the
same direction as the earth’s rotation.
 Retrograde orbit ( 逆行軌道 ): An orbit in which the satellite moves in a
direction counter to the earth’s rotation.
 Argument of perigee ( 近地點輻角 ): The angle from ascending node to
perigee, measured in the orbital plane at the earth’s center, in the direction of
satellite motion.
 Right ascension of the ascending node ( 昇交點赤經 ): For the practical
determination of an orbit, the longitude and time of crossing of the ascending
node are frequently used. An absolute measurement, a fixed reference in
space is required. The reference chosen is the first point of Aries, or spring
equinox.
 Mean anomaly ( 均偏角 ): An average value of the angular position of the
satellite with reference in the perigee.
 True anomaly ( 真偏角 ): The angle from perigee to the satellite position,
measured at the earth center.

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 Orbit Elements
(軌道元件 )
 Keplerian element set: six (6) orbital elements.

Semi-major axis ( 半長軸 , a)
 Eccentricity ( 離心率 , e ) – the eccentricity of Comet Halley is 0.967
 Mean anomaly ( 均偏角 ,M )
 Argument of perigee ( 近地點輻角 , w)

Inclination ( 傾斜角 , I)
 Right ascension of the ascending node ( 昇交點赤經 )
 Satellite parameters – details from the NASA Bulletins (Table 2.1)
 Epoch – a reference time.
 By given the mean motion (rev/day) and using Kepler’s 3rd law to
find semi-axis a.

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 Apogee and Perigee Heights
(遠地點與近地點之高度 )
 Apogee Height:
 Ra = a (1 + e)
 Ha = Ra - R
 Perigee Height:
 Rp = a (1 – e)
 Hp = Rp – R
 Given e=0.0011501, a=7192.3 km, and earth radius, R=6371 km.
 Ra = 7192.3 (1 + 0.0011501) = 7200.6 km
 Ha = 7200.6 – 6371 = 829.6 km
 Rp = 7192.3 (1 - 0.0011501) = 7184.1 km
 Hp = 7184.1 – 6371 = 813.1 km

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 Orbit Perturbations
(軌道的擾亂 )
 Keplerian orbit is ideal:
 The earth is uniform spherical mass and
 Only force acting is the centrifugal force
 Perturbations:
 Sun and moon
 Atmospheric drag
 Effects of a non-spherical earth
 Atmospheric Drag – the drag is greatest at the perigee, the drag
acts to reduce the velocity at this point.

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 Homework Problems
(習題 )
 2.1 State Kepler’s three laws of planetary motion.
 2.6 The orbit for an earth-orbiting satellite orbit has an eccentricity of
0.15 and a semi-axis of 9,000 km. Determine a) its period time; b)
Ha; c) Hp. Assume a mean value of earth radius, R=6,371 km.
 2.10 Explain what is meant by apogee height and perigee height.
Given the Cosmos 1,675 satellite has Ha=39,342 km, Hp=613 km,
and earth radius, R=6,371 km. Determine the semi-axis and the
eccentricity of its orbit.
 2.11 The Aussat 1 geostationary satellite has Ha=35,795 km,
Hp=35,779 km, and earth’s equatorial radius, R=6,378 km.
Determine the semi-axis and the eccentricity of the satellite’s orbit.

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