Sports Psychology

Motivation in Sports

Lecture 3
Motivation
• One of the single most important themes in all of
psychology
• Widely researched in sport & exercise
• What factor(s) lead us to engage in the behaviors
that we do?
• WHY??
Motivation - Definitions
• Very complex concept--hard to define
• Force that directs effort/energy/persistence toward
participatory choices
• The direction & intensity of behavior (Gill, 1986)
Motivation Terms
• Intrinsic motivation
• Motivation derived from an internal source
• Extrinsic motivation
• Motivated by some outside force
• What is the “why” of motivation
“Why’s” of Motivation
• Individual differences factors
• Social context
• Interaction
Individual Differences
• Physical maturity (Malina, 1988)
• Parental beliefs about, expectations of, sport
• Goal structures
• Cognitive maturity
• Socialization history
Social Context
• Reward structures
• Coaching styles
• Sociocultural influences (Hayashi, 1995)
• Environmental factors
• Presence of others
• Leadership styles
Interactionist
• Combined effect of personal & situational factors
• Lewin (1936) B = f(P, E)
• Basis of all interactionist beliefs
“Why’s” of Motivation
• Individual differences factors
• Social context
• Interaction
Optimal Motivational Profile
• Self-discipline
• Enjoyment
• Realistic self-confidence
• Attitude toward failure
• Goal-directed
• All skills that may be taught & are possessed by
elite
• 3 important points: cognitions, effects of rewards,
affective components
Participatory Motives
• Beginning point of motivation research in sport
• Why do people stop participating or decide to
continue?
• Initial studies were not based on theories
• Primarily conducted with youth sport
Participation/Discontinuation Motives

• Fairly consistent set of motivational factors

• Adolescents & children indicate that several factors
influence participation decisions
• Minimal differences found between factors
• Age, gender, experience level, sport type
• Vast majority of studies conducted in US
Theory-Based Approaches to Motivation

• Competence Motivation (Harter, 1978, 1981)

• Achievement Goal (Nicholls, 1984)
• Cognitive Evaluation (Deci, 1975; Deci & Ryan,
1985)
• Sport Commitment (Scanlan et al., 1993)
• Expectancy-Value (Eccles & Harold, 1993)
• Attribution (Weiner, 1979)
Harter’s Competence Motivation Theory
(1978, 1981)

• Most commonly used motivational theory in sport

(Horn & Amorose, 1998)
• Studies have used Harter’s theory to address
affective reactions (Brustad, 1988; Brustad & Weiss,
1987), coaching behaviors (Black & Weiss, 1992),
and parental influences (Babkes & Weiss, 1999)
Competence Motivation Theory
• Extension of White’s Effectance Motivation Theory
(1959)

• Need to demonstrate competence in achievement

situations guides motivational processes
Competence Motivation Theory
• Motivational processes are influenced by a variety
of factors
• individual’s self-perceptions of possibility for future
success
• perceptions of situational control
• affective reactions to participation
• significant others
• expectations for reinforcement
Competence Motivation Theory
• Three main domains for achievement: cognitive
(academic), social (peer relationships), and physical
(sports and outdoor games)

• Demonstrated competence in different areas may

result in different impacts to self
Competence Motivation Theory
• Successful performance in valued domains may
result in feelings of positive affect (e.g., satisfaction)
• Socializing agents play important role in
development of this positive affect and intrinsic
motivation
• anticipate reinforcement may occur again
• encourages positive reactive feelings
Harter’s Competence Motivation
Theory (1978, 1981)
• “A bright, scholarly student with little talent in
sports may well perceive himself as cognitively
competent, but relatively incompetent with
regard to his physical skills. To the extent that
athletic prowess is valued as his particular
school...this particular child’s perceived
competence in the area of social skills may
also be relatively low” (Harter, 1978, p.58).
Preferences for Sources of Competence
Information
• Developmental shift in preference for socializing
agents occurs
• Parents are initial socializing agents
• Peers begin to increase in importance around age
10 and continue to increase with age
Competence Motivation
• Cognitive theory
• Significant others
• Achievement domains
• Results in different affects
Expectancy-Value Theory (Eccles
& Harold, 1991)
• Expectancy theory of motivation (Vroom, 1964)

• Motivation comes from three types of beliefs

Expectancy Value
• Expectancy
• Belief that one’s effort will result in effective
performance
• Instrumentality
• Belief that one’s performance will be rewarded
• Valence
• Perceived value of the rewards to the individual
Expectancy Value Theory
• Belief that efforts will translate into success?
• High skill level child, no longer needs to work?
• Hard work, good performance, why still poorly
motivated?
Parental Influence
• Valence (value) determined by parents
• Influence on decisions to engage, intensity of effort,
and child’s actual performance level
• Studies show children’s participation is related to
parental beliefs about child’s physical competence
Implications for Parents
• Early years--determine what activities are most
valued
• Specialization years, parents facilitate & provide
opportunities
• Should create reasonable, congruent expectations
• Failure to do so may result in anxiety & tension
SELF
MOTIVATION
Self Motivation
• Self motivation is the ability to motivate oneself, to
find a reason and the necessary strength to do
something, without the need of being influenced to
do so by another person. Working in a careful and
consistent manner without giving up.
Self Motivation Action Plan
• Clarify Goals
• Identify Obstacles
• Handle each Obstacle
STEP 1 : Clarify the goal
• The first step of your Self-Motivation Action
Plan is to be clear about the end result.
Identify a project that you lack motivation
about.

• Your goals should be SMART. In other

words: Specific, Measurable, Agreed,
Realistic and with a Timescale.
STEP 2 : Identify the Obstacles
• The second step of your Self-Motivation Action
Plan is to be clear about what is standing in your
way. There are two types of obstacles - practical
and emotional.

• Examples of practical obstacles are lack of time,

resources or information.

• Examples of emotional obstacles are lack of

confidence or fear of failure or rejection
STEP 3 : Handle Each Obstacle
• The third step of your Self-Motivation Action Plan is the
most challenging. Go through each obstacle and handle it.

• If the obstacle is lack of time, ask yourself "How can I

create time for this? What do I need to stop doing, start
doing or delegate in order to create time?“

• If the obstacle is lack of confidence, ask yourself "What

am I afraid of? What is the worst thing that could happen?"
Often the worst-case scenario is not as bad as you feared.
References:

• Cox, R. (2007). Sport Psychology:

Concepts and Applications. Boston:
McGraw Hill.
• Williams, J. (2006). Applied Sport Psychology:
Personal growth to peak performance. (5th Ed).
Mountain View, CA: Mayfield.
• Jarvis, M. (2006). Sport Psychology. A Student’s
Handbook. Routledge
• Horn, T. (2002). Advances in Sport
Psychology (2nd Ed). Champaign: Human
Kinetics.
THANKS