Chapter 8

Foundations of
Group Behavior

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
S T E P H E N P. R O B B I N S
E L E V E N T H E D I T I O N
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 Defining
Defining and
and Classifying
Classifying Groups
Groups
Group(s)
Two or more individuals interacting and
interdependent, who have come together
to achieve particular objectives.

Formal Group Informal Group

A designated work A group that is neither
group defined by the formally structured now
organization’s structure. organizationally determined;
appears in response to the
need for social contact.

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 Defining
Defining and
and Classifying
Classifying Groups
Groups (cont’d)
(cont’d)

Command Group Task Group

A group composed of Those working together
the individuals who to complete a job or task.
report directly to a
given manager.

Interest Group Friendship Group

Those working together Those brought together
to attain a specific because they share one
objective with which or more common
each is concerned. characteristics.
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 Why
Why People
People Join
Join Groups
Groups

• Security
• Status
• Self-esteem
• Affiliation
• Power
• Goal Achievement

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 Social
Social Identity
Identity Theory
Theory
 To take personal pride or offence for the
accomplishment of a group
 Emotional reaction the success or failure of the
group because the self esteem rises
 Ingroup favouritism
 Similarity
 Distinctiveness : two women in a male group
may bond over distinctives identity
 Uncertainty reduction

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 The
The Five-Stage
Five-Stage Model
Model of
of Group
Group Development
Development
Forming Stage
The first stage in group development, characterized
by much uncertainty.

Storming Stage
The second stage in group development,
characterized by intragroup conflict.

Norming Stage
The third stage in group development,
characterized by close relationships and
cohesiveness.

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 …Group
…Group Development
Development (cont’d)
(cont’d)

Performing Stage
The fourth stage in group development, when the
group is fully functional.

Adjourning Stage
The final stage in group development for temporary
groups, characterized by concern with wrapping up
activities rather than performance.

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 An
AnAlternative
Alternative Model:
Model: Temporary
Temporary Groups
Groups with
with
Deadlines
Deadlines

Punctuated-
Equilibrium Model
Temporary groups go
Sequence
Sequenceof
ofactions:
actions:
through transitions
1.1. Setting
Settinggroup
groupdirection
between inertia and direction
activity. 2.2. First
Firstphase
phaseof
ofinertia
inertia
3.3. Half-way
Half-waypoint
pointtransition
transition
4.4. Major
Majorchanges
changes
5.5. Second
Secondphase
phaseofofinertia
inertia
6.6. Accelerated
Acceleratedactivity
activity

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 Group
Group Structure
Structure -- Roles
Roles (cont’d)
(cont’d)

Role(s)
A set of expected behavior patterns attributed to
someone occupying a given position in a social unit.

Role Identity
Certain attitudes and behaviors consistent with a
role.

Role Perception
An individual’s view of how he or she is supposed to
act in a given situation.
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 Group
Group Structure
Structure -- Roles
Roles (cont’d)
(cont’d)
Role Expectations
How others believe a person should act in a given
situation.

Psychological Contract
An unwritten agreement that sets out what
management expects from the employee and vice
versa.

Role Conflict
A situation in which an individual is confronted by
divergent role expectations.
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 Group
Group Structure
Structure -- Norms
Norms
Norms
Acceptable standards of behavior within a group
that are shared by the group’s members.

Classes
Classesof
ofNorms:
Norms:
•• Performance
Performancenorms
norms
•• Appearance
Appearancenorms
norms
•• Social
Socialarrangement
arrangementnorms
norms
•• Allocation
Allocationof
ofresources
resources
norms
norms

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 Types
Types of
of Norms
Norms
 Social arrangement norms
– With whom to have lunch with
– Whether to form friendship with on and off the job
 Resources allocation norms
– Assignment of difficult jobs

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 The
The Hawthorne
Hawthorne Studies
Studies
 A series of studies undertaken by Elton Mayo at
Western Electric Company’s Hawthorne Works in
Chicago between 1924 and 1932.
 Research Conclusions:
– Worker behavior and sentiments were closely related.
– Group influences (norms) were significant in affecting
individual behavior.
– Group standards (norms) were highly effective in
establishing individual worker output.
– Money was less a factor in determining worker output
than were group standards, sentiments, and security.

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 Group
Group Structure
Structure -- Norms
Norms (cont’d)
(cont’d)

Conformity
Adjusting one’s behavior to align with the norms of
the group.

Reference Groups
Important groups to which individuals belong or
hope to belong and with whose norms individuals
are likely to conform.

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 Group
Group Structure
Structure -- Norms
Norms (cont’d)
(cont’d)

Deviant Workplace Behavior

Antisocial actions by organizational members that
intentionally violate established norms and result in
negative consequences for the organization, its
members, or both.
Coming late, or leaving early, sabotage , verbal
abuse
It is likely to flourish when it is supported by group
norms/ when you interact with people who tend to
absent more likely to be absent themselves

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 Status:
Status: What
What determines
determines status
status
 Status characteristics theory
– Th power a person wields over others
• Control over group status
– Person’s ability to contribute to group goals
– An individual’s person characteristics
 Status and Norms
– High status individuals given more freedom to deviate
from norms
– Able to resist pressures than the lower status
individuals
– Star athletes oblivious to appearance

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 Status and Group Interaction
– High status individuals tend to be more assertive
– Criticize more, state more commands, and interrupt
others
 Status Inequity
– Status hierarchy is equitable
– mostly they agree within themselves about status
criteria
– Mergers and acquisitions

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 Group
Group Structure
Structure -- Status
Status

Status
A socially defined position or rank given to groups or
group members by others.

Group
GroupNorms
Norms

Group
GroupMember
Member
Status
StatusEquity
Equity Status
Status

Culture
Culture

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 Group
Group Structure
Structure -- Size
Size
Social Loafing
The tendency for individuals to expend less effort when
working collectively than when working individually.
Performance

Other
Otherconclusions:
conclusions:
g) • • Odd
Oddnumber
numbergroups
groupsdo
d

fin do
te

a better than even.

ec

lo better than even.

p

t o
Ex

e • • Groups
Groupsof of77or
or99perform
perform
(du better
better overall thanlarger
overall than larger
l
t ua or smaller groups.
or smaller groups.
Ac

Group Size
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 Group
Group size
size
 Max Ringlemann
 Compares the results of individuals and group
performance on a rope pulling task
 Expected three people pulling together should
exert three times the effort and eight times the
effort
 One person pulling on the rope alone exerted an
average of 63 kg of force
 In groups of three it dropped to 53 , in groups of
eight it fell to 31 kg

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 Why
Why
 Belief that others are not carrying their own fair
share
 Reestablish equity through reducing input
 Dispersion of responsibility
 How to prevent social loafing
– Set group goals so that every group has a common
purpose to strive for
– Increase intergroup competition
– Engage in peer evaluation
– Select members who have high motivation and prefer to
work in groups
– Base group rewards in part on each other unique
contribution
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 Group
Group Structure
Structure -- Composition
Composition

Group Demography
The degree to which members of a group share a
common demographic attribute, such as age, sex,
race, educational level, or length of service in the
organization, and the impact of this attribute on
turnover.

Cohorts
Individuals who, as part of a group, hold a common
attribute.

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 Group
Group Structure
Structure -- Cohesiveness
Cohesiveness

Cohesiveness
Degree to which group members are attracted to
each other and are motivated to stay in the group.

Increasing
Increasinggroup
groupcohesiveness:
cohesiveness:
1.1. Make
Makethe
thegroup
groupsmaller.
smaller.
2.2. Encourage
Encourageagreement
agreementwith
withgroup
groupgoals.
goals.
3.3. Increase
Increasetime
timemembers
membersspend
spendtogether.
together.
4.4. Increase
Increasegroup
groupstatus
statusand
andadmission
admissiondifficultly.
difficultly.
5.5. Stimulate
Stimulatecompetition
competitionwith
withother
othergroups.
groups.
6.6. Give
Giverewards
rewardstotothe
thegroup,
group,not
notindividuals.
individuals.
7.7. Physically
Physicallyisolate
isolatethe
thegroup.
group.

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 Group
Group Tasks
Tasks
 Decision-making
– Large groups facilitate the pooling of information about
complex tasks.
– Smaller groups are better suited to coordinating and
facilitating the implementation of complex tasks.
– Simple, routine standardized tasks reduce the
requirement that group processes be effective in order
for the group to perform well.
– More complete information and knowledge aggregating
the resources of several individuals there is better
imput
– Increased diversity/ increased acceptance of ideas
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 Group
Group Decision
Decision Making
Making
 Strengths  Weaknesses
– More complete – More time
information consuming (slower)
– Increased diversity – Increased pressure
of views to conform
– Higher quality of – Domination by one
decisions (more or a few members
accuracy) – Ambiguous
– Increased responsibility
acceptance of
solutions

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 Effectiveness
Effectiveness and
and Efficiency
Efficiency
 Group decisions are more accurate than
decisions of a average individual
 in terms of speed individuals are more superior
creativity
 In terms of efficiency
– Group decision making consumes more work hours
– If you want to get more data to get input into decisions
groups may be better

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 Group
Group Decision
Decision Making
Making (cont’d)
(cont’d)

Groupthink
Phenomenon in which the norm for consensus
overrides the realistic appraisal of alternative course
of action.

Groupshift
A change in decision risk between the group’s
decision and the individual decision that member
within the group would make; can be either toward
conservatism or greater risk.

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 Group
Group think
think
 Consensus over rides the realistic appraisal of
alternative courses and the full expression of
deviant, minority or unpopular views.

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 Symptoms
Symptoms Of
Of The
The Groupthink
Groupthink Phenomenon
Phenomenon

 Group members rationalize any resistance to the

assumptions they have made.
 Members apply direct pressures on those who
express doubts about shared views or who
question the alternative favored by the majority.
 Members who have doubts or differing points of
view keep silent about misgivings.
 There appears to be an illusion of unanimity.

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 Those who hold a position different from the
dominant majority are under pressure to suppress ,
withhold, or modify their true feelings
 and beliefs
 Every body wants to positive part of the groups
 This usually happens when there is clear group
identity when members hold a positive image of
their group and the group perceives a collective
threat to the positive image
 In order to deal with group think
– Reduce group size
– Leaders to play impartial role . Listen to all views
– Devils advocate / look for divergent perspectives
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 Group
Group Shift
Shift
 discussion makes the members more
comfortable with each other and, thus, more
willing to express extreme versions of their
original positions.
 Group decisions free any single member from
accountability for the group’s final choice, so a
more extreme position can be taken.
 Recognize that group decisions exaggerate the
initial position of the individual members

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 Group
Group Decision-Making
Decision-Making Techniques
Techniques
Interacting Groups
Typical groups, in which the members interact with
each other face-to-face.

Nominal Group Technique

A group decision-making method in which individual
members meet face-to-face to pool their judgments
in a systematic but independent fashion.

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 Nominal
Nominal Group
Group Technique
Technique
 Before any discussion takes place, each member
independently writes down ideas on the problem. After this
silent period, each member presents one idea to the group.
 No discussion takes place until all ideas have been
nominal
nominal
presented and recorded.
nomu
The group discusses the ideas for clarity and evaluates
nomu
them.
 Each group member silently and independently rank-orders
the ideas. The idea with the highest aggregate ranking
determines the final decision.
 that it permits a group to meet formally but does not
restrict independent thinking, as does an interacting group.
Research generally shows nominal groups outperform
brainstorming groups.

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 Group
Group Decision-Making
Decision-Making Techniques
Techniques

Brainstorming
An idea-generation process that specifically
encourages any and all alternatives, while
withholding any criticism of those alternatives.

Electronic Meeting
A meeting in which members interact on computers,
allowing for anonymity of comments and
aggregation of votes.

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 They actually lead to decreased group effectiveness,
 require more time to complete tasks,
 result in reduced member satisfaction compared with face-
to-face groups.

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