Structured Query Language

(SQL)
Objectives of SQL
Ideally, a database language should allow a user to:
 create the database and table structures;
 perform basic data management tasks, such as the insertion,
modification, and deletion of data from the tables;
 perform both simple and complex queries.

 perform these tasks with minimal user effort, and its

command structure and syntax must be relatively easy to
learn.
 must be portable: that is, it must conform to some
recognized standard  can use the same command structure
and syntax when move from one DBMS to another
 SQL is an example of a transform-oriented
language, or a language designed to
transform input tables into required output
tables.
 The ISO SQL standard has two major
components:
◦ Data Definition Language (DDL) for defining the
database structure and controlling access to the
data;
 to create the database structure and the access
mechanisms
◦ Data Manipulation Language (DML) for retrieving
and updating data.
 to populate and query the tables
Writing SQL commands
 An SQL statement consists of reserved words and
user-defined words.
 Reserved words are a fixed part of the SQL
language and have a fixed meaning.
 They must be spelled exactly as required and
cannot be split across lines.
 User-defined words are made up by the user
(according to certain syntax rules), and represent
the names of various database objects such as
tables, columns, views, indexes, and so on.
 Most components of an SQL statement are case
insensitive
The SQL language
 The Data Definition Language (DDL): This
subset of SQL supports the creation, deletion,
and modification of definitions for tables and
views.
 The Data Manipulation Language (DML): This

subset of SQL allows users to pose queries

and to insert, delete, and modify rows.
 Triggers: actions executed by the DBMS

whenever changes to the database meet

conditions specified in the trigger.
Data manipulation
 SQL DML statements:
◦ SELECT to query data in the database;
◦ INSERT to insert data into a table;
◦ UPDATE to update data in a table;
◦ DELETE to delete data from a table
THE FORM OF A BASIC SQL QUERY
SELECT [DISTINCT] select-list
FROM from-list
WHERE qualification
 a SELECT clause : species columns to be
retained in the result,
 a FROM clause : species a cross-product of

tables.
 The optional WHERE clause : selection

conditions on the tables mentioned in the

FROM clause.
Queries: SELECT
 The purpose : is to retrieve and display data from one or
more database tables.
 The form:

◦ columnExpression represents a column name or an expression;

◦ newName is the column name as a display heading;
◦ TableName is the name of an existing database table or view
◦ alias is an optional abbreviation for TableName
The sequence of processing in a SELECT statement is:
 SELECT specifies which columns are to appear in
the output;
 FROM specifies the table or tables to be used;
 WHERE filters the rows subject to some condition;
 GROUP BY forms groups of rows with the same
column value;
 HAVING filters the groups subject to some
condition;
 ORDER BY specifies the order of the output.
Example:
Sailors Reserves

Boats
Find the names and ages of all sailors.
Find the names and ages of all sailors.
Example :

Find all sailors with a rating above 7

Find all sailors with a rating above 7
The syntax of a basic SQL query
 The from-list in the FROM clause is a list of table names.
◦ A table name can be followed by a range variable
 The select-list is a list of column names of tables named
in the from list.
◦ Column names can be prefixed by a range variable.
 The qualification in the in the WHERE clause is a boolean
combination of conditions of the form expression op
expression
◦ Op : comparison expression
◦ An expression is a column name, a constant or an (arithmetic or
string) expression
 The DISTINCT keyword is optional.
◦ Indicate that the table computed as an answer to this query
should not contain duplicate.
The Conceptual evaluation strategy:
1. Compute the cross-product of the tables in
the from-list.
2. Delete those rows in the cross-product that
fail the qualification conditions.
3. Delete all columns that do not appear in the
select-list.
4. If DISTINCT is specified, eliminate duplicate
rows.
Find the names of sailors who
have reserved boat number 103
Find the names of sailors who have
reserved boat number 103
Explanation:

Reserves
Sailors

Reserves X Sailors
The answer :
Find the names of sailors who
have reserved a red boat
Find the Sids of sailors who have
reserved a red boat
Find the colors of boats reserved
by Lubber
Find the colors of boats reserved by
Lubber
Find the names of sailors who
have reserved at least one boat
Find the names of sailors who have
reserved at least one boat
UNION, INTERSECT, AND EXCEPT

Find the names of sailors who have reserved

a red or a green boat.
Find the names of sailors who have reserved a
red or a green boat.
Find the names of sailors who have reserved
both a red and a green boat.
Find the names of sailors who have reserved
both a red and a green boat.
Find the sids of all sailors who have reserved red
boats but not green boats
Find the sids of all sailors who have reserved
red boats but not green boats