The Structures, Properties, and

Functions of Biomolecules
 OBJECTIVE
At the end of the lesson, you should be
able to explain how the structures of
biological macromolecules such as
proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and
nucleic acids determine their
properties and functions.
• Biomolecules are large organic
compounds that are important to
life’s processes, such as respiration
and metabolism. There are numerous
biomolecules with different
structures and functions. They are
generally classified into four major
groups – proteins, carbohydrates,
lipids, and nucleic acids.
In this lesson, you will look into the
general structure, properties, and
functions of each of these groups of
biomolecules.
 PROTEINS
• Proteins are biomolecules composed of amino
acid units. Amino acids are organic molecules
that have a central carbon atom bonded to four
different groups — an amino group (−NH2), an
acidic carboxyl group (−COOH), a hydrogen
atom, and a variable side chain, R. The side
chain can range from a single hydrogen atom to
complex ring structures.
In a protein, the amino acids are linked
via a peptide bond. This peptide bond
is formed between an amino group of
one amino acid and an acid carboxyl
group of another amino acid. A chain
of two or more amino acids linked
together by peptide bonds is called
a peptide.
The smallest protein has about 50
amino acids. However, large proteins
can have as many as 1000 amino acids,
arranged in any possible sequence. It
is estimated that human cells can
create between 80 000 to 100 000
different proteins.
The shape of a protein is important so that it can
carry out its function. Long chains of amino acids
fold into a unique three-dimensional shape.
Some areas of the protein may twirl into helices,
like the coils of a telephone cord. Other areas
may be repeatedly bent into a pleated sheet, like
the folds of an accordion. An important
intermolecular force of attraction that dictate
and maintain the shape of a protein is
the hydrogen bonding.
 PROPERTIES
• Proteins can participate in neutral, acidic,
or basic reactions because their amino
acids have an acidic carboxyl end and a
basic amino end. The amino acids
are amphoteric which means they can
function either as an acid or a base. Also,
proteins have high molecular weights
because they are comprised of many
amino acids.
 FUNCTIONS
• The sequence of amino acids
determines the protein’s shape and
function. Proteins play many
important roles in living cells. They
can hasten chemical reactions,
transport substances, and provide
structural support.
Many proteins function as enzymes, which
are molecules that catalyze or speed up
chemical reactions in the body. The
reactant molecules bind to the active
site of the enzymes, where they react to
form products. Enzymes have shapes that
are highly specific for their functions. A
slight change to their structures will inhibit
them to do their function.
Transport proteins carry small particles
throughout the body. For example, the
protein haemoglobin carries oxygen in
the blood from the lungs to the rest of
the body. An important part of
hemoglobin is its iron group (called
heme), the part to which oxygen binds.
• Structural proteins are fibrous
proteins which have long, thin
structures. A typical example of a
structural protein is keratin, which is
a component of the protective
covering of most animals – hair, nails,
skin or feathers.
 Carbohydrates
• Carbohydrates are molecules that are
composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
They have a general formula of CnH2nOn. They
can be grouped depending on the number of
their monomer units called saccharides.
• Carbohydrates can be divided into three major
groups: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and
polysaccharides.
• Monosaccharides are the simplest form
of carbohydrates. They contain either
five or six carbon atoms. They have open-
chain and cyclic forms. A typical example
of monosaccharide is glucose, C6H12O6,
one of the products of photosynthesis in
plants.
• Disaccharides are two monosaccharides
bonded to each other. The monosaccharides
are linked through an ether (C−O−C) group. A
common example of a disaccharide is the
sweetener sucrose, or table sugar. Sucrose is
formed by glucose and fructose.
• Polysaccharides are long chains of
monosaccharide units. They are also
called complex carbohydrates. Similar to
disaccharides, the monosaccharides in a
polysaccharide are linked through an ether
bond. An example of a polysaccharide is
starch, which is used to store energy in plants.
It is comprised solely of glucose subunits.
 PROPERTIES
• Monosaccharides and disaccharides 
are small molecules with multiple
polar groups so they are water
soluble. Because they exhibit
hydrogen bonding in their structures,
they have high melting points.
In comparison, polysaccharides are
less soluble due to their large sizes
and complex shapes. For example,
starch and glycogen are both
insoluble in water.
On the other hand, cellulose, also
water-insoluble, cannot be digested
by humans because the
appropriate enzyme to breakdown
cellulose into simpler
monosaccharides is lacking. Hence,
nutritionists call cellulose as dietary
fiber because it just passes through
the digestive system unchanged.
 FUNCTIONS
• The main function of carbohydrates is
to store and provide energy. They are
broken down into smaller glucose units
that can be easily absorbed by the cells.
When glucose is further broken down, the
energy released by breaking its chemical
bonds are used or stored by the body in
the form of glycogen.
Some carbohydrates also serve as
the framework of cellular structures.
For example, cellulose makes up the
cell wall of plant cells. Chitin, another
carbohydrate, forms the exoskeleton of
arthropods and the cell wall of fungal
cells.
 LIPIDS
• Lipids are large, nonpolar biomolecules.
They are mainly composed of carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen. Unlike proteins
and carbohydrates, lipids are not
polymers with repeating monomer
subunits. They have many kinds including
triglycerides, waxes, and steroids.
• Triglycerides are lipids composed of
glycerol and fatty acids. Glycerol is a
molecule with three carbons, each
containing a hydroxyl (−OH) group
while fatty acid is a long chain of
carboxylic acid.
When three fatty acids bond to glycerol, they
form ester bonds.
• Triglycerides can be solid or liquid at
room temperature. If solid at room
temperature, they are called fats. Fats,
such as lard and butter, are produced by
animals. If liquid at room temperature,
they are called oils. Oils, such as coconut
and olive oils, are produced by plants.
• Waxes are lipids that are composed of a
fatty acid with a long chain of alcohol.
They are produced by both plants and
animals. Plants often produce wax that
coats their leaves which prevents them
from drying out. Animals such as bees
also produce wax. Bees create their
honeycomb structures from beeswax.
• Steroids are lipids without fatty acid chains.
Instead, they have multiple rings in their
structures. They are built from the basic four-
ring steroid structure.
• An example of a steroid is dietary lipid
cholesterol. Cholesterol is the precursor of
hormones such as estrogen and progesterone.
Recall that hormones are molecules that
communicate between organs to regulate
physiology and behavior.
 Properties
• Lipids such as triglycerides and waxes are
mostly made of nonpolar hydrocarbon chains,
making them generally insoluble in water. The
hydrocarbon chains are the “hydrophobic
(water-fearing) tails” of lipids. On the other
hand, their hydroxyl, ester, and ether groups
can interact with water. These groups are called
“hydrophilic (water-loving) heads.” When lipids
are mixed with water, they arrange themselves
in a spherical form called a micelle. 
 FUNCTIONS
• Lipids are the reserved sources of
energy. The energy stored in their
bonds is used by the body for fuel.
When the energy is abundant,
cells store the excess energy in the
fatty acids of triglycerides.
• Lipids like waxes are used as
a protective coating of organisms.
Because they are hydrophobic,
lipids protect plants and animals
from drying out by controlling
evaporation.
 Nucleic Acids
• Nucleic acids, discovered by Friedrich
Miescher in 1869, are biomolecules that
are made up of repeating units of
nucleotides. Nucleotides are monomers
with three components, a 5-carbon sugar,
a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous
base. The nucleotides are linked
through phosphodiester bonds.
• If the sugar is ribose, then the nucleotides
make up the ribonucleic acid (RNA). On the
other hand, if the sugar is deoxyribose, then
the nucleotides make up the deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA). Both DNA and RNA have
nitrogenous bases. The five common
nitrogenous bases are adenine (A), guanine
(G), cytosine (C), thymine (T), and uracil (U).
 PROPERTIES
• DNA and RNA are very stable molecules
because of the stacking interaction
between their hydrophobic parts. Also,
hydrogen bonding present between the
polar parts of the molecule plays a role in
maintaining the structure of the nucleic
acid.
 FUNCTIONS
• DNA contains the genetic instructions for
the development and functioning of
organisms. This genetic information is
converted by the RNA into amino acid
sequences of proteins. RNA has three
types, messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal
RNA (rRNA), and transfer RNA (tRNA).
• The mRNA carries the genetic
sequence information between the
DNA and ribosomes. In ribosomes,
proteins are synthesized. The rRNA
catalyzes the peptide bond formation
while the tRNA serve as the carrier
molecules of the amino acids that
make up the protein.
 What do you think?
• How are nucleic acids related to
proteins? What will happen to the
protein being synthesized in the
ribosomes if an error occurs in the
genetic information passed from the
DNA to the RNA?
 APPLICATION
• A concept map is a graphic organizer
that illustrates the connection
between terms, ideas, concepts, and
processes. Make a concept map of
the four types of biomolecules and
their properties and functions.
 SUMMARY
• Biomolecules are large organic compounds that are important to life’s
processes. They are generally classified into four major groups – proteins,
carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids.
• Proteins are biomolecules composed of amino acid units. The sequence of
amino acids determines the protein’s shape and function. In the human body,
proteins hasten chemical reactions, transport substances, and provide
structural support.
• Carbohydrates are molecules that are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen. They have a general formula of CnH2nOn. Their functions are to store
energy and serve as the framework of cellular structures.
• Lipids are large, nonpolar biomolecules mainly composed of carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen. They function as reserved sources of energy and protective
coating of organisms.
• Nucleic acids are biomolecules that are made up of repeating units of
nucleotides, which are made up of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a
nitrogenous base. They encode, transmit, and express genetic information.