Leaders are not Alone

The Role of Advisors and Bureaucracies

Dr. Afridi
Decision making process
 It is complex process……
-depends upon the structure of Govt.
-collective or one man decision.
-organizations play important role in decision
making.
-democracy or non democracy issue.
-decision units (who decides finally?)
-use of resources to stay on & implement the
decision.
Three Styles of Executive Management
1. Formalistic Approach
2. Competitive Approach
3. Collegial Approach
Formalistic Approach
 This is the formal & most adopted
approach by every type of Govt.
 There is a relationship of Superior and
Inferior.
 This is a two way approach
(Information--Direction).
 It is a linear & straight process.
 Superior has direct approach to the
next subordinate.
 Drawbacks.
 There is negligible competition.
 It is slow process.
 Information can be distorted.
Competitive Approach
 There is competition among bureaucracies &
individuals.
 Competition leads to Excellence and conflict.
 Less chances of distortion of information.
 Faster than Formalistic.
 Information can be gathered even from other
sources.
Cont….
 This is good for generating feasible
solutions.
 This system can generate at once
creative, politically acceptable &
bureaucratically durable solutions.
Collegial Approach
 This emphasizes on the team work.
 Time consuming, expensive and require more
energy.
 Negligible chances of distortion of
information.
 Superior can contact any of the subordinate
to get information.
 There is direct contact b/w superior &
subordinate.
Cont…..
 This gives rise to competition and
performance. (when there is difference
of opinion)
 Random (not linear).

Drawback
Team may think alike resulting too much
agreement.
Cont…
 There is difficulty in keeping delicate balance
of diversity of opinion, mediating differences
and fostering team spirit.
 All leaders do not possess the quality to

manage this system.

Significance of advisory system
 It is a function of leaders personality

 Implication for decision making

Comparison of Executive Management Styles
Formalistic Competitive Collegial

Likelihood of High Low,,,Multiple Low,,Multiple

distortion of No built in checks perspectives perspectives
information presented & openly presented & openly
debated debated
Degree to which Low for both High for both High for substan-
leader is expose-d tive conflict, Low
to substantive & for interpersonal
interpersonal conflict
conflict
Overall responsive- Low, focus on best High, focus on High, aims to
ness of decision React slow or inap- feasible solution, identify solution
process propriate in crisis dependent on both optimal &
leaders skills feasible. Depend
on leaders skills
Cont…
The Thoroughness When it works well When it works well When it works well
of consideration of High, thorough, High, leader High,debate &
alternatives orderly, exposed to biased teamwork ensure
objectively. information. multiple viewpionts
are considered.
When it does not When it does not
work well, Low work well, Low When it does not
emphasis on Staff competition, work well, Low
objectivity may self interested Closed system of
distort political action rather than mutual support or
pressure & public service. groupthink.
opinion.
The Government bureaucracy
 Information distorted. (in temporary
bureaucracy)
 Fully agreement is not possible.
 Resulting failure in policy making.
 The policy making is the result of
dynamic influence process.
Cont…
 FP decisions are the result of rational
process where various agencies,
departments, offices collectively
constitute the Govt. jointly serve an
agreed upon national interest.
FP Depends on Govt. Type
 Presidential System vs. Parliamentary
System

 Majority Party Govt. vs. Coalition Govt.

Models of foreign policy
 Rational actor model

 Organizational process model

 Bureaucratic politics model

Diagrammatical Explanation
Rational Actor Model
 Cont…
 we take state as a whole unite

Example: We say the U.S. Attack on Iraq

France ban on hijab
Organizational Process Model
Cont…
 Focus on organizations

 State as a collection of organization

 Any ministry, department, high court,

supreme court, parliament examples of
orgs.
Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs)

Each organization has its own customary ways or standard operating

procedures, which is often abbreviated as SOPs.

Although it is efficient for organizations to act according to such standard

procedures most of the time, rigid adherence also robs them of flexibility

when they confront a novel or unusual situation.

According to this model, organizations respond to such situations by

adapting rather than reinventing their standard operating procedures.

Adaptation consists of small and incremental changes to standard

procedures.
 Examples
 U.S congress gave some money to Pakistan
U.K parliament pass the bill
 Cont…
Larger Organization Smaller Organization

 Parliament  national assembly

& senate

 senate  Standing committee

Bureaucratic politics model
 Cont…

 Focus on the bureaucratic  State is a collection of

individuals in the state bureaucrats

The place of individual in state
Example of Role and Place
Two trends in bureaucracy
 co-operation  Competition

 Give birth from  Give birth from role

placement
 horizontal
 vertical
Models of Decision Making
Rational Policy Organizational Bureaucratic
Model Process Model Politics Model

Policy is National Interest Organizational Complex bargai-

determined by inertia and ning among
feasibility individuals &
agencies
Key actor (s) Govt. acting as if it Organizations Individuals,
is the single rational acting on guided by role &
decision maker standard operat- self interest
ing procedures
(SOP’s)
Decision 1.Identify national 1.Organizational 1.Horizontal:
Process interest. expertise & Interests
interests determined by
determine role & employing
preferences agency
Cont…
2.Identify 2.Adapt SOP’s 2.Verticle:interes
options ts determined by
place in
3.Cost/benefit hierarchy
3.Feasibility
analysis of 3.Bargaining &
determined
options other political
policy choices
maneuvering
determine policy
4.Choose policy choices
alternative that
best serves
national interest
 Leaders & their advisors depend on
Govt. agencies for information & advice.
 Final decisions are made by top leaders

with small circle of advisors or by group

of policy makers.
 Actual role of a group of policy makers

is twofold..
1.Groups play role as think tank. i.e.
Cont…
When they gather, process & analyse
information to gain understanding of
the problem.
2. Groups act as command centers that
develops & evaluate options. Also
responsible for arriving at a decision.
Cont…
 Advisors are colleagues & competitors.
 Advisors in small groups may engage in
various different patterns of interaction,
such as bargaining, persuasion,
concurrence, or deadlock.
 These processes lead to dominant
solution.
 Personnel’s Interaction within
Small Groups
Persuasion: the act of influencing the mind by
arguments or reasons.
Concurrence: if opposing viewpoints have been
successfully excluded, the group might
reach easy agreement.
Bargaining: Compromise (Give-Take Policy).
Deadlock: if each seeks to convince others of their
viewpoint they may be unable to reach
a decision.
 Interaction Diagram:
Negotiation

Persuasion Concurrence Compromise Deadlock

Political Games: Strategies of
influence in decision making
1. Efforts to influence the composition of the
decision making group. (compositive)
2. Efforts to influence the beginning stage of
decision process such as highlighting the
importance of an issue or framing a
problem. (formative)
3. Efforts to manipulate the dynamics of
interpersonal interaction within the group.
(relational)
Cont…
 No institutional system is perfect.
 In coalition Govt. smaller partners can
under certain circumstances have extra
ordinary influence over decision making
process.
 The End.

Thanks to ALLLLLLLLLL

&

Have a Goooooood Luck.