Che CH 21 Nuclear

CHE 116: General Chemistry
 CHAPTER TWENTY ONE
Copyright © Tyna L. Heise 2002

All Rights Reserved
Chem. 116 Prof. T.L. Heise

Nuclear Chemistry
2
Nuclear Reactions: changes in matter that occur

in the nucleus of an atom
- spontaneous changes of nuclei, which emit
radiation, are said to be radioactive
Chem. 116 Prof. T.L. Heise

Radioactivity
3
Nucleus - made up of two subatomic particles
PROTON
NEUTRON
Both molecules are

called nucleons
Chap. 21.1 Chem. 116 Prof. T.L. Heise

Radioactivity
4
All atoms of a given element have the same number

of protons, known as atomic number
All atoms of a given element can have different
numbers of neutrons, and therefore different mass
numbers
- mass number is the number of nucleons in
nucleus
- same atomic number, different mass number is
an ISOTOPE

Radioactivity
5
Different isotopes have different abundancies

in nature.
Different nuclei also have different stabilities:
- nuclear properties of an atom depend on
the number of protons and neutron -
nuclei that are radioactive are called
radionuclides - atoms containing these nuclei
are called radioisotopes

Radioactivity
6
The vast majority of nuclei found in nature are

stable and remain intact indefinately
Radionuclides - unstable and spontaneously emit
particles and electromagnetic energy.
- emission of radiation is one way an unstable
nuclide can become a stable nuclide with less
energy - when a nuclide spontaneously
decomposes, it is called radioactive decay

Radioactivity
7
Alpha decay ()- emission of the nucleus of a

helium atom : 4He2
238 U92 ---> 234Th90 + 4He2
** all mass numbers and atomic numbers are

similarly balanced in all nuclear equations

Radioactivity
8
Sample exercise: What element undergoes

alpha decay to form lead-208?

Radioactivity
9

X ---> 208Pb82 + 4He2

Radioactivity
10

X ---> 208Pb82 + 4He2
atomic numbers add up to 212

Radioactivity
11

X ---> 208Pb82 + 4He2
atomic numbers add up to 212

mass numbers add up to 84

Radioactivity
12

212 X84 ---> 208Pb82 + 4He2
look up atomic number 84 to identify

symbol

Radioactivity
13

212 Po84 ---> 208Pb82 + 4He2

Radioactivity
Beta decay ()- emission of the nucleus of a high speed 14
electron : 0e-1
131 I53 ---> 131Xe54 + 0e-1
** beta emission is equivalent to the conversion of a
neutron to a proton, thereby increasing the atomic
number by 1
1n --> 1p + 0e
0 1 -1
the electron only comes into existence during nuclear

reaction, it was NOT there all along

Radioactivity
Gamma radiation ()- emission of the nucleus 15
of a high energy photons : 00
** not shown when writing nuclear
equations

Radioactivity
16
nope

Radioactivity
Positron emission - emission of the nucleus of a high 17
speed positive electron : 0e+1
11C6 ---> 11B5 + 0e+1
** positron emission is equivalent to the conversion of
a proton to a neutron, thereby decreasing the atomic
number by 1
1p --> 1n + 0e
1 0 +1
the positron only comes into existence during nuclear

reaction, it was NOT there all along
.

Radioactivity
Electron capture - capture by the nucleus of a high
18
speed electron : 0e-1

81 Rb37 + 0e-1 --> 81Kr36
** electron capture is equivalent to the
conversion of a proton to a neutron, thereby
decreasing the atomic number by 1
1p + 0e --> 1n
1 -1 0

Radioactivity
along 19

Radioactivity
Write a balanced nuclear equation for the 20
reaction in which oxygen-15 undergoes

positron emission.

Radioactivity

positron emission.
15 O8 --> 0e+1 + X

Radioactivity

positron emission.
15 O8 --> 0e+1 + 15X7

Radioactivity

positron emission.
15 O8 --> 0e+1 + 15N7

Patterns of Nuclear stability
The stability of a particular nucleus depends on
24
a variety of factors, and no single rule allows

us to predict whether a particular nucleus is
radioactive and how it might decay, however
empirical observations can be made
- neutron to proton ratio is most important

neutron to proton ratio 25
- the more protons packed into the nucleus, the

more neutrons needed to bind the nucleus
together
stable nuclei with low atomic numbers have
approximately equal numbers of neutrons and
protons

neutron to proton ratio 26
- the more protons packed into the nucleus, the

more neutrons needed to bind the nucleus
together
nuclei with higher atomic numbers, the number
of neutrons exceeds the number of protons
because the number of neutrons necessary to
create a stable nucleus increases more rapidly
than the number of protons

The belt of stability ends at 83 27
- above the belt can lower their
ratio by emitting a beta
- below the belt can increase their
ratio by either positron
emission or electron capture
- nuclei with atomic numbers above
84 tend to undergo alpha
emission

Sample exercise: Predict the mode of decay of 28
(a) plutonium-239

(a) plutonium-239
atomic number of 94, alpha emission

(a) indium-120

(a) indium-120
atomic number of 49, neutrons are 71, above the

belt of stability; beta emission

Keep in mind that the previous slides describe 32
guidelines to follow, and not all nuclei abide by the
guidelines given.
Certain nuclei can not gain stability by a single
emission. Elements like this have a series of
emissions called a disintegration series.

Uranium-238 is an 33
excellent example of
a nuclei which has a
disintegration series

Two other observations have proven useful in the 34
determination of stable nuclei
Nuclei with 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, or 82 protons OR 2,
8, 20, 28, 50 or 82 neutrons are generally more
stable. These numbers have been called the
magic numbers
Nuclei with even numbers of both protons and
neutrons are generally more stable than those
with odd numbers of nucleons

Sample exercise: Which of the following nuclei would
35
you expect to exhibit a special stability:
118 Sn50, 210At85, 208Pb82

Sample exercise: Which of the following nuclei would
36
you expect to exhibit a special stability:
118 Sn50 208 Pb82

Nuclear Transmutations
Another way a nucleus can change identity is to be struck
37
by a neutron or by another nucleus. Nuclear reactions
that have been induced this way are called Nuclear
(Artificial) Transmutations
Nuclear Transmutations are listed in the following order:

target nucleus + bombarding particle -->
ejected particle + product nucleus
14 N7 + 4He2 --> 1H1 + 17O8
14 N7 (, p) 17O8

Charged particles must be moving very fast in order 38 to
overcome the electrostatic repulsion between them
and the target nucleus.
- the higher the nuclear charge on either the
projectile or the target, the faster the particle
must be going
- Strong magnetic and electric fields are used to
accelerate the particles.

Particle Accelerators 39

Particle Accelerators 40

Most synthetic isotopes in quantity in medicine and 41
scientific research are made using neutrons as
projectiles
- neutrons are neutral so there is no nuclear
repulsion to overcome
- no need to be accelerated

Rates of Radioactive Decay
Different nuclei undergo radioactive decay at different42
rates.
Radioactive decay is a first order kinetic process
- characteristic half life
- independent of initial concentration
- unaffected by external forces such as temperature,
pressure, or state of chemical combination
- radioactive atoms cannot be rendered harmless by
a chemical reaction or by any other practical
treatment

Sample exercise: Carbon-11, used in medical imaging, 43
has a half life of 20.4 min. The carbon-11 nuclides
are formed and then incorporated into a desired
compound. The resulting sample is injected into the
patient, and the image is obtained. The entire
process takes five half lives. What percentage of
original carbon remains at this time?

100 50

100 50 25

100 50 25 12.5

100 50 25 12.5 6.25

100 50 25 12.5 6.25 3.125

Due to the constancy of half lives, they can be used as49a
molecular clock to determine the ages of different
objects

Shroud of Turin - face 50

Shroud of Turin - hands 51

Calculation based on Half-lives 52
Rate = kN
the first order rate constant is called a decay
constant
The rate at which a sample decays is called its
activity, units are disintegrations/sec
ln(Nt/No) = -kt
k = 0.693/t1/2

Sample exercise: A wooden object from an 53
archeological site is subjected to radiocarbon dating.
The activity of the sample due to carbon-14 is
measured to be 11.6 disintegration per second. The
activity of a carbon sample of equal mass from fresh
wood is 15.2 disintegrations per second. The half-life
of 14C is 5,715 yr. What is the age of the archeological
sample?

The activity of a carbon sample of equal mass from
fresh wood is 15.2 disintegrations per second. The
half-life of 14C is 5,715 yr. What is the age of the
archeological sample?
k = 0.693/t1/2

k = 0.693/t1/2
k = 0.693/5,715 yr

k = 0.693/t1/2
k = 0.693/5,715 yr
k = 1.21 x 10-4 yr-1

k = 0.693/t1/2 t = (-1/k)ln(Nt/No)
k = 0.693/5,715 yr
k = 1.21 x 10-4 yr-1

k = 0.693/t1/2 t = (-1/k)ln(Nt/No)
k = 0.693/5,715 yr t = (-1/1.21x10-4)ln(11.6/15.2)
k = 1.21 x 10-4 yr-1 t = (-8264)(-0.2702)

k = 0.693/t1/2 t = (-1/k)ln(Nt/No)
k = 0.693/5,715 yr t = (-1/1.21x10-4)ln(11.6/15.2)
k = 1.21 x 10-4 yr-1 t = (-8264)(-0.2702)
t = 2233 yr

Sample exercise: A sample to be used for medical 60
imaging is labeled with 18F, which has a half-life of
110 minutes. What percentage of the original activity
in the sample remains after 300 minutes?

k = 0.693/t1/2

k = 0.693/t1/2
k = 0.693/110 min.

k = 0.693/t1/2
k = 0.693/110 min.
k = 0.0063 min.-1

k = 0.693/t1/2 ln(Nt/No) = -kt
k = 0.693/110min
k = 0.0063 min-1

k = 0.693/t1/2 ln(Nt/No) = -kt
k = 0.693/ 110 min ln(x/100g) = -0.0063(300)
k = 0.0063 min-1

k = 0.693/t1/2 ln(Nt/No) = -kt
k = 0.693/ 110 min ln(x/100g) = -0.0063(300)
k = 0.0063 min-1x/100 g = e-1.89

k = 0.693/t1/2 ln(Nt/No) = -kt
k = 0.693/110 min ln(x/100g) = -0.0063(300)
k = 0.0063 min-1x/100 g = e-1.89
x/100 g = 0.151

k = 0.693/t1/2 ln(Nt/No) = -kt
k = 0.693/ 110 min ln(x/100g) = -0.0063(300)
k = 0.0063 min-1x/100 g = e-1.89
x/100 g = 0.151
x = 15.1 g or 15.1%

Detection of Radiation
A variety of methods have been designed to detect 69
emissions from radioactive substances.
Photographic film and plates, the greater the
exposure, the darker the area exposed
Geiger counters, uses the conduction of electricity by
ions and electrons produced by radioactive substances
Phosphors glow when as electrons excited by
radiation fall back down to ground state
Scintillation counter detects tiny flashes of light from
phosphors

Geiger counters 70

Radiotracers: a radioactive element that can be traced 71
so easily they are used to follow the pathway a
chemical reaction takes
- ability to do this comes from the fact that all
isotopes of an element have essentially identical
chemical properties
- the chemicals pathway is revealed by the
radioactivity of the radioisotope

Energy Changes
The energies involved in nuclear reactions must be 72
considered using Einstein’s famous equation
E = mc2
This equation states that the mass and energy of an
object are proportional, if a system loses mass, it loses
energy and vice versa.
The proportionality constant c2 is so large, even small
changes in mass cause large changes in energy

Energy Changes
The mass changes and the associated energy changes73in
nuclear reactions are much greater than those in
chemical reactions.
- the mass change in the decay of 1 mole of
Uranium-238 is 50,000 times greater than
that for the combustion of one mole of
methane.
238 U92 --> 234Th90 + 4He2

Energy Changes
238 U92 --> 234Th90 + 4He2 74
mass of
nuclei: 238.0003 233.9942 + 4.0015
(amu)
238.0003 = 237.9957

Energy Changes
238 U92 --> 234Th90 + 4He2 75
mass of
nuclei: 238.0003 233.9942 + 4.0015
(amu)
238.0003 = 237.9957
0.0046 amu are LOST, so proportional
energy is LOST
**Lost energy is exothermic

Energy Changes
238 U92 --> 234Th90 + 4He2 76
mass of
nuclei: 238.0003 233.9942 + 4.0015
(amu)
238.0003 = 237.9957
0.0046 amu
If 1 mole of U-238 is considered, amu turns into grams

Energy Changes
238U92 --> 234Th90 + 4He2 77
mass of nuclei: 238.0003 233.9942 + 4.0015

(g)
238.0003 = 237.9957
0.0046 g
E = mc2
E = 0.0000046 kg(3.00x108m/s)2
E = 4.14x1011 kg m2/s2
E = 4.14x1011 J

Energy Changes
Sample exercise: Positron emission form 11C, 78
11C --> 11B + 0e
6 5 1
occurs with release of 2.87x1011 J per mole of 11C. What

is the mass change per mole of 11C in this nuclear
reaction?

Energy Changes
11C --> 11B + 0e
6 5 1

reaction?
E = mc2

Energy Changes
11C --> 11B + 0e
6 5 1

reaction?
E = mc2
2.87x1011 J = m(3.00x108m/s)2

Energy Changes
11C --> 11B + 0e
6 5 1

reaction?
E = mc2
2.87x1011 J = m(3.00x108m/s)2
2.87x1011 J = m
(3.00x108m/s)2

Energy Changes
11C --> 11B + 0e
6 5 1
occurs with release of 2.87x1011 J per mole of 11C. What is

the mass change per mole of 11C in this nuclear reaction?
E = mc2
2.87x1011 J = m(3.00x108m/s)2
2.87x1011 J = m
(3.00x108m/s)2
3.18x 10-6 kg = m

Energy Changes
11C --> 11B + 0e
6 5 1
occurs with release of 2.87x1011 J per mole of 11C. What is

the mass change per mole of 11C in this nuclear reaction?
E = mc2
2.87x1011 J = m(3.00x108m/s)2
2.87x1011 J = m
(3.00x108m/s)2
3.19x 10-6 kg = m
0.00319 g = m

Energy Changes
Scientists discovered in the 1930’s that the masses of 84
nuclei are always less than the masses of the
individual nucleons of which they are composed.
The mass difference between a nucleus and its
constituent nucleons is called the mass defect
The origin of the mass defect is readily understood
if we consider that energy is used to break into the
nucleons
The larger the binding energy, the more stable the
nucleus

Energy Changes
85
nuclei of intermediate mass numbers are more tightly

bound than those with smaller or larger mass numbers
- a larger atom will break up into two intermediates
- 2 or more smaller atoms will fuse into an
intermediate

Nuclear Fission
86

Nuclear Fission
2.4 neutrons produced by every fission of uranium-235.
87
Number of fissions and energy released quickly

escalates exponentially is unchecked
In order for a fission chain reaction to occur a

minimum mass of material must be present
(critical mass) - with minimum present only one
neutron is effective in producing another fission

Nuclear Fission
88
2.4

Nuclear Fission
89
To trigger the fission reaction, two subcritical

masses are slammed together using chemical
explosives.
The two combined masses are supercritical
which rapidly leads to an uncontrolled nuclear
explosion

Nuclear Fission
Nuclear Reactors: 90
Uranium is enriched to about 3% U-235 and

then used to form UO2 pellets that are encased
in zirconium or stainless steel tubes
Rods composed of materials such as cadmium
or boron control the fission process by
absorbing neutrons
Moderators slow down neutrons so they can be
captured more readily by the fuel

Nuclear Fission
A cooling liquid is circulated through the core

to carry off heat generated by the nuclear
fission.
Cooling liquid and moderator could be one and the
same substance
Steam is used to drive a turbine connected to an
electrical generator, however steam must be
condensed so additional cooling liquid is
required, generally acquired from lake or river

Nuclear Fission
Reactor is surrounded by a concrete shell to shield
personnel and nearby residents from radiation
Reactor must be stopped periodically so that the
fuel can be replaced or reprocessed
Spent fuel rods are being kept in storage at reactor
sites
20 half-lives are required for their radioactivity to
reach levels acceptable for biological exposure (600
years)

Nuclear Fission
93

Nuclear Fusion
Fusion 94
appealing as an energy source because of

availability of light isotopes and because fusion
products are generally not radioactive
not presently used to generate energy because
high energies are needed to overcome the
repulsion between nuclei
reaction requires temps of about 40,000,000 K
these temps have only been achieved using a
hydrogen bomb

Nuclear Fusion
Fusion 95
also a problem with confining the reaction - no

known structural material can withstand such
temps
possibilities? Tokamak
Lasers

Nuclear Fusion
Tokamak 96

Biological Effects
We are continually bombarded with radiation! 97
When matter absorbs radiation, the energy of

radiation can cause either excitation or ionization
of the matter
- ionizing radiation is more harmful
When living tissue is irradiated, most of the energy

is absorbed by the 70% water by mass of living
tissue

Biological Effects
Ionizing radiation 98
electrons are removed from water forming
highly reactive H2O+ ions
H2O+ + H2O --> H3O+ + OH
the unstable and highly reactive OH molecule is
an example of a free radical due to the unpaired
electron, •OH
in tissue, free radicals attack a host of
surrounding biomolecules to produce more free
radicals

Biological Effects
Damage depends on 99
activity and energy of the radiation

length of exposure
whether source is inside or outside the body
Tissue that shows most damage
reproduce at rapid rates
bone marrow
blood forming tissue
lymph nodes

Biological Effects
Extended Exposure to Low Doses 10
0
cancer
damage to growth regulation mechanism in cell,
inducing cells to reproduce in an uncontrolled
manner

Biological Effects
Units used to measure radiation 10
1
becquerel (Bq) = 1 nuclear disintegration per
second
curie (Ci) = 3.7 x 1010 disintegrations per
second
gray (Gy) = 1 J absorbed per kilogram of tissue
rad (radiation absorbed dose) = 1 x 10-2 J per
kilogram of tissue
to correct for differences in strengths of varying
radiation, a multiplication factor is used

Biological Effects
Radon 10
2
Rn-222 is a product of nuclear disintegration of
U-238
being a noble gas, radon is extremely unreactive
and easily escapes the ground
radon has a short half life and emits alpha
particles
222Rn --> 218Po + 4He
86 84 2
 polonium is also an alpha emitter

Che CH 21 Nuclear

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CHE 116: General Chemistry

 CHAPTER TWENTY ONE

Copyright © Tyna L. Heise 2002

Chem. 116 Prof. T.L. Heise

Nuclear Reactions: changes in matter that occur

Chem. 116 Prof. T.L. Heise

Nucleus - made up of two subatomic particles

Both molecules are

Chap. 21.1 Chem. 116 Prof. T.L. Heise

All atoms of a given element have the same number

Chap. 21.1 Chem. 116 Prof. T.L. Heise

Different isotopes have different abundancies

Chap. 21.1 Chem. 116 Prof. T.L. Heise

The vast majority of nuclei found in nature are

Chap. 21.1 Chem. 116 Prof. T.L. Heise

Alpha decay ()- emission of the nucleus of a

238 U92 ---> 234Th90 + 4He2

** all mass numbers and atomic numbers are

Chap. 21.1 Chem. 116 Prof. T.L. Heise

Sample exercise: What element undergoes

Chap. 21.1 Chem. 116 Prof. T.L. Heise

Sample exercise: What element undergoes

X ---> 208Pb82 + 4He2

Chap. 21.1 Chem. 116 Prof. T.L. Heise

Sample exercise: What element undergoes

X ---> 208Pb82 + 4He2

atomic numbers add up to 212

Chap. 21.1 Chem. 116 Prof. T.L. Heise

Sample exercise: What element undergoes

X ---> 208Pb82 + 4He2

atomic numbers add up to 212

Chap. 21.1 Chem. 116 Prof. T.L. Heise

Sample exercise: What element undergoes

212 X84 ---> 208Pb82 + 4He2

look up atomic number 84 to identify

Chap. 21.1 Chem. 116 Prof. T.L. Heise

Sample exercise: What element undergoes

212 Po84 ---> 208Pb82 + 4He2

Chap. 21.1 Chem. 116 Prof. T.L. Heise

the electron only comes into existence during nuclear

Chap. 21.1 Chem. 116 Prof. T.L. Heise

Chap. 21.1 Chem. 116 Prof. T.L. Heise

Chap. 21.1 Chem. 116 Prof. T.L. Heise

the positron only comes into existence during nuclear

Chap. 21.1 Chem. 116 Prof. T.L. Heise

speed electron : 0e-1

Chap. 21.1 Chem. 116 Prof. T.L. Heise

Chap. 21.1 Chem. 116 Prof. T.L. Heise

reaction in which oxygen-15 undergoes

Chap. 21.1 Chem. 116 Prof. T.L. Heise

reaction in which oxygen-15 undergoes

Chap. 21.1 Chem. 116 Prof. T.L. Heise

reaction in which oxygen-15 undergoes

15 O8 --> 0e+1 + 15X7

Chap. 21.1 Chem. 116 Prof. T.L. Heise

reaction in which oxygen-15 undergoes

15 O8 --> 0e+1 + 15N7

Chap. 21.1 Chem. 116 Prof. T.L. Heise

a variety of factors, and no single rule allows

Chap. 21.2 Chem. 116 Prof. T.L. Heise

- the more protons packed into the nucleus, the

Chap. 21.2 Chem. 116 Prof. T.L. Heise

- the more protons packed into the nucleus, the