Logic and Reasoning

Logic is the science of reasoning, proof, thinking, or

inference.
Logic allows us to analyze a piece of inductive and
deductive reasoning to determine whether it is correct or
incorrect, or to determine the argument is valid or invalid.
Logic is the basis of all mathematical reasoning, and all
automated reasoning.
Inductive Reasoning – is the process of reaching a
general conclusion by examining specific example.
Example:
3, 6, 9, 12, 15, __?
Each succesive number is 3 larger than the preceding
number thus we predict that the next number in the list
is 3 larger than 15, which is 18.
Deductive reasoning – is the process of reaching
conclusion by applying general assumption, procedure
or principles.

Example:
Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8 add 6 to the
product divide the sum by 2 and subtract 3.
Solution:
The number is n
Multiply the number 8xn = 8n
Add 6 to the product 8n +6
Divide the sum by 2 (8n+6) / 2 = 4n +3
Subtract 3 4n +3 -3 = 4n
Therefore, the number is four times the original number.
Proposition is a declarative sentence (that is, a
sentence that declares a fact) that is either
true or false , but not both.
Example:
Saint Louis University is in Bagiuo City.
Benguet is a part of Cordillera
Administrative Region.
1+1=2
Quezon City is the capital of the
Philippines.
Not all sentences are considered
proposition. Like:
What day today?
Read the instruction carefully.
5x+1=0
X +2y =0
We use letters to denote propositional variables as
follows: P,Q, R, S....
If the proposition is true denote by T.
If the proposition is false denote by F.

Basic Logical Connectives

Name Connective or key word Symbol
Conjunction And ʌ
Disjunction Or V
Implication or conditional If … then … →
Biconditional … if and only if… ↔
Negation Not ~
Conjunction: Given proposition p and q, is
a proposition known as conjunction of p and
q.
Example:
Given:
p: three is greater than zero
q: zero is greater than negative two
pʌq: Three is greater than zero and zero is
greater than negative two
Disjunction: Given proposition p and q, the
statement “p or q” is a proposition known as
disjunction of p and q.
Example
Given:
p: three is greater than zero
q: zero is greater than negative two
pvq: Three is greater than zero or zero is
greater than negative two
Conditional or Implication: Given proposition p and
q, the statement “if p then q” is a proposition known as
conditional proposition of p and q.
Example:
Given:
p: three is greater than zero
q: zero is greater than negative two
p→q: If three is greater than zero, then zero is
greater than negative two.
Biconditional: Given the propositions p and q,
the statement “p if and only if q, is known as a
biconditional proposition of p and q.
Example:
Given:
p: three is greater than zero
q: zero is greater than negative two
p↔q: Three is greater than zero if and
only if zero is greater than negative two.
A proposition that is not stated in an
affirmative form call negation of a
proposition.
Example:
Given:
p: three is greater than zero
q: zero is greater than negative two
p~q: Three is greater than zero not zero is
greater than negative two.
Conditional statements play an
essential role in mathematical
reasoning. They are often seen in the
different theorems of mathematics.
There are different way of expressing
p→q.
The common ones encountered in mathematics are:
“p implies q”,
if p, then q
“if p, q”
“p is sufficient for q,
“q if p”, “q when p”,
“ a necessary condition for p is q”,
q unless not p”,
“p only if q”,
a sufficient condition for q is p”,
“ whenever p”
“q is necessary for p” and
“q follows from p”.
Summary of Truth Values of Compound Statements
Using Logical Connectives
P Q PʌQ PvQ P→Q P↔Q
T T T T T T
T F F T F F
F T F T T F
F F F F T T

The condition statement can be transformed to new

conditional statements. In particular, there are three
related conditional statements that occur so often
that they are given special names. There are the
converse, the contrapositive and inverse. The
contrapositive always has the same truth value as the
conditional.
Problem Solving
A problem is a situation in which a person wants something and
does not know immediately what series of actions he can
perform to get it.

Problem solving is by which an individual uses previously

acquired knowledge, skills and understanding to satisfy the
demands of an unfamiliar situation.

Problem solving means engaging in a task for which the solution

method is not known in advance. In order to find a solution,
learner must draw on their knowledge and through this process,
they will often develop new mathematical understandings.
In problem solving, there must be a goal, blocking of
that goal for the individual, and acceptance of that goal
by the individual.
Solving problem is not only a goal of knowing
mathematics, but also a major means of doing so.

Problem solving may be presented through the

following diagram

GOAL OBSTACLE SOLUTION

 
The diagram shows that problem solving is a process and
comprises the following components: Goal, Obstacle,
and Solution.
For the process of problem solving to be successful, all
these three components have to be well-defined.
To check as to the clarify of each component, the
problem solver may ask the following question:
GOAL: The goal states what to be accomplished.
What is required of needs to be accomplished in the
problem?
What relevant information or data are available to solve
the problem?
What unfamiliar terms need to be defined?
OBSTACLE: The obstacle presents a
real problem that hinders one from
easily arriving at the solution.
How can I solve the problem?
Where can I start?
What appropriate strategy can be
used?
SOLUTION: The solution presents the
achievement of the goal after the strategy has
been employed. It’s now time to reflect to find
out it the problem solving process has been
successful.
Does the solution make sense?
Does the solution satisfy the requirement?
Are there other possible solutions?
Is there a more appropriate strategy to use?
Is there a simpler way to solve the problem?
Problem solving is an important skill
not only in dealing with mathematics,
but also in making decisions in life.
Decision-making is a significant part
of problem solving. Learners should
be taught how to solve problems
logically and accurately; and in the
process, they discover that there are
various ways to solve a problem.
George Ploya, a Hungarian mathematician, described
the methods of problem solving in his book “How to
solve it”.
Polya Four Step Problem Solving Process.
1. Understanding the problem. To help to understand
the problem consider the following:
a) Restate the problem in your own words.
b) Determine exactly what is asked for
c) Identify or list the given data, conditions, and
information.
d) Identify the unknown
2. Devise the plan. Applying strategies requires skills and
own judgment. Some strategies are the following:
a) Make an organized list, a table, a chart, or diagram
illustrating the given and unknown parts.
b) Formulate an equation or model showing the
relationship between the given data and unknown
c) Look the pattern; guess and check
d) Examine related problem and determine if the same
technique can be applied
3. Carry out the plan. After devising the plan, next is
logical step is to carry out the plan.
a) Implement the strategy in step 2 and perform any
necessary actions or computations.
b) Check each step of the plan as you proceed; this may
be intuitive checking or a formal proof of each step.
c) Keep an accurate record of your steps as you
implement your devised plan.
d) Persist with the plan that you have chosen, and if it
continues not to work, discard it and choose another.
4. Look back. Polya mentions that much can be gained
by taking the time to reflect, examine and look back at
what you have done, what worked and what didn’t doing
this will enable you to predict what strategy to use to
solve future problems, if these relate to the original
problem.
Ensure the solution in the consistent with the facts of
the problem.
Examine the solution obtained. Check the results in the
original problems.
Interpret the solution in terms of the original problem
Determine whether there is another method of finding
the solution.
Example: One number is 7 more than another. Twice the
larger is equal to four times the smaller decreased by 2.
find the numbers.
Step 1. Understand the problem
We are looking for two numbers wherein one is 7 more
than another, and if the larger is doubled, it will be equal
to four times the smaller decreased by two.

Step 2. Devise a Plan

We can use the “Formulate an equation” strategy.
x = smaller number
x + 7 = larger number
Equation: 2(x+7) = 4x-2
Step 3. Carry out the plan
2(x+7) = 4x-2
2x + 14 = 4x -2 subtract 4x and 14 from both side
2x – 4x + 14 – 14 = 4x – 4x – 2 – 14 simplify
-2x = -16 divide both sides by -2
x=8
and 8 + 7 = 15

Step 4. look back

15 is 7 more than 8; twice 15, which is 30, is four times 8 less 2
That is 2(8+7) = 4(8) – 2
30 = 30
Answer: the smaller number is 8 and the larger number is 15