Gasification & Gas to

Liquid Technology

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Gasifiers

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Range of particulate and tar levels in different
gasifiers
Dense Phase Lean Phase

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 Gasification Reactors
• Based on the density factor. Gasifiers can be (a) dense phase
reactors, and (b) lean phase reactors.
• Density factor is a ratio of the solid matter (the dense phase) a
gasifier can burn to the total volume available.
• In dense phase reactors are the feedstock fills most of the space
in the reactor. They are of three types: downdraft, updraft, and
cross-draft.
• Lean phase gasifiers are having lack separate zones for different
reactions. Lean phase reactors are mostly of two types, fluidized
bed gasifiers and entrained-flow gasifiers.
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Range of applicability for biomass gasifier types.
• One gasifier type is not necessarily suitable for the full range of gasifier
capacities.
• There is an appropriate range of application for each.
• For example, the moving-bed (updraft and downdraft) type is used for
smaller units (10 kWth– 10 MWth); the fluidized-bed type is more
appropriate for intermediate units (5 MWth–100 MWth); entrained-flow
reactors are used for large-capacity units (>50 MWth).

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 Gasification technologies and their commercial suppliers

Crossdraft gasifiers are for the smallest size while entrained flow are the largest size gasifiers.
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 Updraft gasifier

• Biomass is fed from the top and a gasifying medium (air) is fed from the
bottom.
• The product gas leaves from the top while solids leave from the bottom.

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 Updraft gasifier
• The temperature is highest close to the grate, where oxygen meets
with char and burns the char.
• The hot gas travels up, providing heat to the endothermic gasification
reactions, and meets pyrolyzing biomass at a low temperature (200–
500 °C).
• Primary tar is produced in this temperature range. This tar travels
upward through cooler regions and therefore has no opportunity for
conversion into gases and secondary tar.
• For this reason, updraft gasifiers generate the highest amount of tar—
typically 10 to 20% by weight of the feed.

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Downdraft gasifier

Downdraft gasifier has

the lowest tar
production (<1 g/Nm3).

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 Downdraft gasifier

• In downdraft gasifier, both gas and feed travel downward. The temperature is
highest in the downstream combustion zone.
• The tar is produced after drying at lower temperatures (200–500 °C) close to
the feed point.
• The oxygen in the air, along with the tar, travels downward to the hotter zone.
• Owing to the availability of oxygen and high temperature, the tar readily
burns in a flame, raising the gas temperature to 1000 to 1400 °C.
• The flame occurs in the interstices between feed particles, which remain at
500 to 700 °C. This phenomenon is called flaming pyrolysis.
• Since the pyrolysis product, tar, contacts oxygen while passing through the
highest-temperature zone, it has the greatest opportunity to be converted
into non-condensable gases.
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 Cross-draft gasifier
• In a cross-draft gasifier, air enters from one side of
the gasifier reactor and leaves from the other.
• Cross-draft gasifiers have a few distinct advantages
such as compact construction and low cleaning
requirements.
• Also, cross-draft gasifiers do not need a grate; the
ash falls to the bottom and does not come in the
way of normal operation.
• It is primarily used for gasification of charcoal with
very low ash content

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 Cross-draft gasifier
• The start-up time for this reactor is relatively short, and high temperatures
can be attained using this type of gasification.
• Its tar production is low (0.01–0.1 g/nm3).
• Crossdraft gasifiers can be very light and small (<10 kWe).
• It can handle high-moisture fuels if the top is open so that the moisture
can escape.
• Particle size should be controlled, as unscreened fuel runs the risk of
bridging and channeling.
• Crossdraft gasifiers work better with charcoal or pyrolyzed fuels.

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Classification by flow geometry
 British Gas/Lurgi gasifier (fixed bed, slagging)

• Moving bed reactor (Lurgi – dry ash

and BGL - slagging)
• Counter-current flow of coal and
oxidizing blast
• Blast composed of air and hot syngas,
so low oxygen consumption
• Operates on reactive carbon sources
• Good heat transfer heats the carbon
source creating methane and tar
• Post production cleaning and
scrubbing requires greater energy use
Figure 1: BGL Gasifier
BHEL
• The gasification media, a mixture of air and steam, is fed through a grate,
which also enables ash removal.
• A gas cooler is used to recover part of the sensible heat of the gas produced
and superheat steam for the gasifier.
• Further gas cooling as well as tar condensation are done by water
quenching.
• Particulates are removed with a Venturi scrubber.
• Moving-bed gasifiers produce tar-laden gas, which make the recovery of the
sensible heat of the raw gas difficult.
• They also need coals with a certain particle size (5 to 30 mm).
• They produce large effluents containing tars and phenolic acids, requiring
elaborate effluent treatment.
 Fluidized-Bed Gasifiers
• Fluidized-bed gasifiers are noted for their excellent mixing and
temperature uniformity.
• A fluidized bed kept in a semi-suspended condition (fluidized state) by the
passage of the gasifying medium through them at the appropriate
velocities.
• The excellent gas–solid mixing and the large thermal inertia of the bed
make this type of gasifier relatively insensitive to the fuel’s quality.
• The fluidized-bed design has proved to be particularly advantageous for
gasification of biomass. Its tar production lies between that for updraft
(~50 g/nm3) and downdraft gasifiers (~1 g/nm3), with an average value of
around 10 g/nm3

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  Winkler bubbling fluidized-bed gasifier (Fritz Winkler in 1921,)
• Fluid-bed reactor (Winkler, HTW,
CFB – dry ash; KRW, U-Gas –
Agglomerating)
– Air fluidizes a bed and carbon
containing particles added
– Proper mixing of fuel and oxidant
provide good mass transfer and
heat transfer
– Fine particle will escape with syngas
and needs to be cleaned
– Very good heat/mass transfer so
partially reacted carbon may settle
with ash
– Slagging will reduce fluidization, so
temp remains below softening
point for ash
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Winkler Atmospheric Fluid-Bed Gasification
The High Temperature Winkler (HTW)
• First developed by Rheinbraun in Germany to gasify lignite's for
reducing gas for iron ore.
• The gasifier consists of a refractory-lined pressure vessel equipped
with a water jacket.
• Feedstocks are pressurized in a lock hopper, which is located below
the coal storage bin and then pneumatically conveyed to a coal bin.
• The conveying gas is then filtered and recirculated. Coal in the
receiving bin is then dropped via a gravity pipe into the fluidized bed,
which is formed by particles of ash, semi-coke, and coal.
• The gasifier is fluidized from the bottom with either air or
oxygen/steam, and the temperature of the bed is kept at around
800°C, below the fuel ash fusion temperature
The High Temperature
Winkler (HTW)
• The HTW process includes heat
recovery in a syngas cooler in which
the raw synthesis gas is cooled from
900°C to about 300°C.
• A ceramic candle filter is used
downstream of the syngas cooler for
particulate removal.
• The 600t/d, 10 bar demonstration
unit in Berrenrath, which was
operated over 12 years and achieved
an availability of 84%, was used to
supply gas to a commercial
methanol plant.
 Circulating Fluid-Bed (CFB) Processes

• Advantages of the stationary fluid

bed and the transport reactor.
• The high-slip velocities ensure good
mixing of gas and solids,
• Excellent heat and mass transfer.
• Small particles are converted in one
pass, or are entrained, separated
from the gas, and returned via an
external recycle.
• Larger particles are consumed more
slowly and are recycled internally
inside the bed until they are small
enough for external recycling.
• The CFB operates with a much higher circulation rate
• Higher heating rate experienced by the incoming feed particles.
• Reduces significantly the tar formation.
• CFB system comprises the reactor, an integral recycle cyclone, and a
seal pot.
• The high gas velocities (5–8m/s) ensure that most of the larger particles
are entrained and leave the reactor overhead. The solids separated
from the gas in the cyclone are returned to the reactor via the seal pot.
• For biomass applications the fuel must undergo size reduction to 25–
50mm
Slip velocity is the difference between the velocity of the conveying air
and that of the conveyed particles.
ENTRAINED-FLOW GASIFIERS
• Ability to handle any coal and to produce a clean, tar-free syngas.
• In entrained-flow gasifiers, the fine coal particles react with the concurrently
flowing steam and oxygen.
• All entrained-flow gasifiers are of the slagging type, which implies that the
operating temperature is above the ash melting point.
• Moreover, entrained-flow gasifiers produce the highest quality synthesis gas
because of the low methane content.
• Entrained-flow gasifiers have relatively high oxygen requirements, and the raw gas
has a high sensible heat content.
• The various designs of entrained-flow gasifiers differ in their feed systems (dry-coal
feed in a high-density fluidized state or coal-water slurries), vessel containment for
the hot conditions (refractory or membrane wall), configurations for introducing the
reactants, and the ways in which sensible heat is recovered from the raw gas.
• The two best-known types of entrained-flow gasifiers are the top-fired
coal-water-slurry feed gasifier, as used in the Texaco process and the
dry coal feed side-fired gasifier as developed by Shell and Krupp-
Koppers (Prenflo).
• Coals with very high ash melting points are generally fluxed with
limestone in order to lower the ash melting point and hence the
operating temperature
• Currently, most entrained-flow gasifiers are single-stage gasifiers. The
fuel is introduced together with the blast via one or more burners.
The blast is always pure oxygen or a mixture of oxygen and steam.
 Texaco Gasifier (entrained flow,
slagging)
Above Ground Gasification
• Entrained flow reactors (Shell, Texaco, E-gas,
Noell, KT - Slagging)
• Carbon source is made of very fine particles in a
liquid or slurry for very good mass transfer
• Very little residence time
• Co-current flow with oxygen where high
temperatures can be reached
• Low heat transfer means hot exiting gas with no
methane or tar, but more oxygen required.
• High temperature and very small carbon sources
make it an ideal process for coal gasification.
• High temperatures without charring
• No agglomeration because of fine particle size
preparation
Figure 1: Texaco Gasifier
Underground Coal Gasification
 Underground Coal Gasification
Underground coal gasification
(UCG), wherein coal is converted to
gas in-situ, moves the process of
coal gasification underground.
Gas is produced and extracted
through wells drilled down into the
coal seam, to inject air or oxygen
to combust the coal in-situ, and to
produce the coal gas to the surface
for further processing, transport,
or utilization
 Underground Coal Gasification
• The process relies on the
natural permeability of the coal
seam to transmit gases to and
from the combustion zone, or
on enhanced permeability
created through reversed
combustion, an in-seam
channel, or hydro-fracturing
Typical Operating Parameters of a UCG Pilot
• Design output of Pilot Test MW 20
• Operating life of test days 100 days
• Tot Gas Volume (dry) for test Nm3 10,600,000
• Energy in gas produced GJ 138,000
• Coal required for trial t 9,600
• Estimated length of channel gasified m 93
• Flow Rate in Production Well Nm3/h 5,500
• Oxygen demand Nm3/h 1,600
• Process water requirements Nm3/h 1.60
UCG numerous advantages
• Conventional coal mining is eliminated with UCG, reducing operating
costs, surface damage and eliminating mine safety issues such as mine
collapse and asphyxiation;
• Coals that are unmineable (too deep, low grade, thin seams) are
exploitable by UCG, thereby greatly increasing domestic resource
availability;
• No surface gasification systems are needed, hence, capital costs are
substantially reduced;
• No coal is transported at the surface, reducing cost, emissions, and local
footprint associated with coal shipping and stockpiling
• Most of the ash in the coal stays underground, thereby avoiding the need
for excessive gas clean-up, and the environmental issues associated with
fly ash waste stored at the surface;
• There is no production of some criteria pollutants (e.g., SOx, NOx) and
many other pollutants (mercury, particulates, sulfur species) are greatly
reduced in volume and easier to handle.
• UCG eliminates much of the energy waste associated with moving waste
as well as usable product from the ground to the surface;
• UCG, compared to conventional mining combined with surface
combustion, produces less greenhouse gas and has advantages for
geologic carbon storage. The well infrastructure for UCG can be used
subsequently for geologic CO2 sequestration operations. It may be
possible to store CO2 in the reactor zone underground as well in adjacent
strata.
Limitations and Concerns for UCG
• UCG has produced significant groundwater contamination and ground
subsidence in some previous operations
• The increase in exploitable coal possible with UCG may be less when
site selection is constrained by geologic and hydrologic criteria to
protect the environment
• UCG is a non-steady state process-- operations cannot be controlled to
the same extent as surface gasification – Process variables vary as burn
progresses and can only be estimated – Flow rate and composition
(heating value) of product gas will vary over time
• Business case for UCG will remain difficult until there are enough UCG
facilities (power, syngas, chemical feedstocks) to provide economic data
Science and Technology Gaps
• Environmental and site assessment
• Process and environmental monitoring
• (Computational Fluid Dynamics) CFD gasification model
• Issues with Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) with UCG
Environmental and Site Assessment
Objectives
• Reduce risk of UCG to acceptable levels through assessment tools for:
– Site selection and screening – Operations and facilities planning
based on site-specific risk-indexing – Setting operations guidelines
based on site parameters
• Identify UCG operating ranges that limit production of contaminant
compounds, and prevent contaminant migration out of the cavity
during- and post-UCG
• Include evaluation of mitigation and remediation options and
economics appropriate to UCG sites, including bio-attenuation rates
• Include capability to assess combined UCG-CCS
• Risk-based Decision-making Framework for UCG and UCG-CCS
• Site characterizations incorporating geologic and hydrologic systems
• Accurate, integrated geomechanical-hydro-chemical simulations of
UCG impacts that include:

– Effects of thermal changes on density and viscosity, hydrologic gradients, and

on contaminant migration
– Effects of linkage and burn processes, cavity growth, cavity collapse,
fracture/fissure propagation, and coal swelling on hydraulic connectivity and
gradients
– Integration and inversion techniques, including stochastic inversion using
Monte-Carlo Markov-chain approaches
Simulations of UCG Impacts on
GeologicHydrologic Systems
• UCG environmental assessment cannot be done with a standard
toolbox of environmental tools
• UCG requires use of coupled process, hydrological, geochemical and
geomechanical models to capture:
– Balancing gasifier operational pressure against hydrologic pressure and other
gradients in the field to prevent outward contaminant migration
– Impact of gasifier operating conditions on creation and behavior of
contaminants within the burn chamber
– Enhanced vertical hydraulic conductivity of the rock matrix above the burn
chamber as a result of collapse and fracturing
– Buoyancy-driven upward flow of groundwater in the vicinity of the burn
chamber toward potable water resources at shallower depths
Chemical reactions in UCG