ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

CEG451
INTRODUCTION
TO

GEOLOGY
LECTURER : ANAS BIN IBRAHIM
HP : 019-5700311
ROOM : 4.25
 CHAPTER 1 :
INTRODUCTION TO GEOLOGY
LEARNING OUTCOMES (LO):

LO1 : The student should understand the

definition of geology.

LO2 : The student should understand the

plate boundary. 
 WHAT IS GEOLOGY?
 Geology, from the Greek geo and logos, is defined
as the study of Earth.

 Geology is generally divided into two broad areas

a) Physical geology – the study of earth materials,
such as minerals and rock, as well as the
processes operating within Earth and on its
surface.
b) Historical geology – examines the origin and
evolution of Earth, its continents, oceans,
atmosphere, and life.

 Geology is an integral part of our lives. 3

 ACTIVITY 1

In pairs, discuss why geology

is important?

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 WHAT IS GEOLOGY? cont’d..
 Naturaldisasters such as earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, tsunami, landslides and floods are all
components of geology that affect everyone.

 The more we understand how these phenomena

work, the better prepared we can be to lessen
their destruction and minimize the loss of life
resulting from them.

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 1.1
PRINCIPLE
DIVISIONS
OF THE EARTH
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THE EXPANDING
UNIVERSE

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BIG BANG THEORY

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 1.1.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE SOLAR
SYSTEM
 Our solar system consists of
- the Sun
- 9 planets
- 101 moons or satellites ( the number keeps changing with
the discovery of new moons and satellites surrounding the
Jovian planets)
- a tremendous number of asteroids ( most of which orbit
the Sun in a zone between Mars and Jupiter)
- millions of comets and meteorites as well as
interplanetary dust and gases.
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 Pluto
Mars
SUN
Neptune
Earth

Venus
Mercury
Uranus

Saturn
Jupiter
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INTRODUCTION TO THE SOLAR
SYSTEM CONT’..
 The planet on which we live is only one of nine planetary
bodies that revolve around the Sun in the solar system

 There are two groups of planets:

a) four smaller planets orbiting close to the sun
 Terrestrial planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and
Mars)
b) four larger planets occupying the outer reaches of
the solar system
 Jovian planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and
Neptune)
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 The ninth planet, Pluto is not included in either category
INTRODUCTION TO THE SOLAR SYSTEM CONT’..
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE TERRESTRIAL AND
THE JOVIAN PLANETS

The largest Terrestrial planets (Earth&Venus)

Size have diameters only ¼ as great as the
diameter of the smallest Jovian planet
(Neptune)

The Terrestrial masses are only 1/17 as great

Mass as Neptune’s.

The densities of the Terrestrial planets

Density average about five times the density of water,
whereas the Jovian planets have densities
that average only 1.5 times that of water. 13
INTRODUCTION TO THE SOLAR
SYSTEM CONT’..

 The substances that make up the planets are divided

into three compositional groups: gases, rocks and ices,
based on their melting points.
a) The gases, hydrogen and helium are those with
melting points near absolute zero
b) The rocks are principally silicate minerals and
metallic iron, which have melting points exceeding
700°C
c) The ices include ammonia (NH3), methane (CH4),
carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O). They have 14
intermediate melting points.
CONTINUED..
 The inner, or terrestrial, planets are dense bodies
mainly composed of iron and silicate (containing the
element silicon) rocks with minor amounts of gases
and ices.

 The Jovian planets on the other hand contain large

amounts of gases (hydrogen and helium) and ices
(mostly water, ammonia, and methane) are much
lighter in density.

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ACTIVITY 2

CLOZE
PASSAGE

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 1.1.2 PHYSICAL FEATURES OF
THE EARTH
 Earth consisting four major spheres:
a) hydrosphere,
b) atmosphere,
c) biosphere and
d) geosphere

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 Hydrosphere (The water on Earth)

 Earth is sometimes called the blue planet, water makes

earth unique.
 Hydrosphere is a dynamic mass of water that is
continually on the move, evaporating from the oceans to
the atmosphere, precipitating to the land, and running
back to the ocean again.
 The oceans cover 71 percent of Earth’s surface to an
average depth of about 3800 meters (12,500 feet). It
accounts for about 97 percent of Earth’s water.
 The hydrosphere also includes the fresh water found
underground and in streams, lakes and glaciers.
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 Atmosphere (The air surrounding Earth)
 Earth is surrounded by a life-giving gaseous envelope called the
atmosphere.
 The atmosphere is a mixture of gases, mostly nitrogen and
oxygen, with smaller amounts of argon, carbon dioxide and other
gases.
 It is held to the Earth by gravity and thins rapidly with altitude.
 The atmosphere supports life because animals need oxygen,
and plants need both carbon dioxide and oxygen.
 The atmosphere supports life indirectly by regulating climate, air
acts both as a filter and as a blanket – retaining heat night and
shielding us from direct solar radiation during the day.
 Wind transport heat from the equator toward the poles, cooling
equatorial regions and warming temperate and polar zones. 19
Biosphere
(The area on Earth where life exists)
 The biosphere is the zone inhabited by life. It includes
the uppermost geosphere, the hydrosphere, and the
lower parts of the atmosphere.
 Sea life concentrates near the surface, where sunlight is
available.
 Plants also grow on the Earth’s surface, with root
penetrating a few meters into the soil.
 Animals live on the surface, fly a kilometer or two above
it, or burrow a few meters underground.

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 Geosphere
 The geosphere consists of three major layers:
- a dense metallic core
- a less dense rocky mantle
- an even less dense surface crust
 The core
- composed mainly of iron and nickel, heated to 6000°C,
about as hot as the surface of the Sun.
- the outer core is apparently liquid.
- the inner core is a solid.
- both are thought to consist largely of iron and a small
amount of nickel.

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 Geosphere cont’d..
 The mantle
- surrounds the core and lies beneath the crust.
- the physical characteristics of the mantle vary with depth.
- near the surface, the outermost mantle is cool because
the Earth’s interior heat has escape into space: this cool rock
is relatively strong and hard
- the layer below the surface is so hot: the rock is weak,
soft, plastic and flows slowly.
- deeper in the Earth, pressure overwhelms temperature:
the mantle rock becomes strong again.

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 Geosphere cont’d..
 The crust
- Earth’s outermost layer, consists of two types.
- Continental crust is thick (20-90 km), has an average
density of 2.7 g/cm3 and contains considerable silicon and
aluminum.
- Oceanic crust is thin (5-10 km), denser than continental
crust (3.0 g/cm3) and is composed of the dark igneous
rock basalt and gabbro.

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PHYSICAL FEATURES OF THE
EARTH CONT’..
 Earth can be divided into five main layers
based on physical properties and hence
mechanical strength
a) lithosphere
b) asthenosphere
c) mesosphere (lower mantle)
d) outer core
e) inner core
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 ACTIVITY 3
LITOSPHERE ASTHENOSPHERE MESOSPHERE OUTER INNER
CORE CORE

KNOWN AS
POSITION
THICKNESS
MATERIALS
STRENGTH
TEMPERAT
URE

STATE
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LITHOSPHERE

 Earth’s outermost layer consists of the crust and

uppermost mantle and forms a relatively cool, rigid shell.
 Although this layer is composed of materials with
markedly different chemical composition, it tends to act
as a unit that exhibits rigid behavior, mainly because it is
cool and thus strong.
 This layer, called the lithosphere (sphere of rock),
averages about 100 kilometers in thickness but may be
more than 250 kilometers thick below the older portions
of the continents.
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ASTHENOSPHERE

 Beneath the lithosphere, in the upper mantle (to a depth of about

660 kilometers), lies a soft, comparatively weak layer known as
the asthenosphere (“weak sphere”).
 The top portion of the asthenosphere has a
temperature/pressure regime that results in a small amount of
melting.
 Within this very weak zone the lithosphere is mechanically
detached from the layer below.
 The lithosphere is able to move independently of the
asthenosphere.
 The uppermost asthenosphere is weak because it is near its
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melting point, the rocks are very easily deformed.
MESOSPHERE (LOWER
MANTLE)
 Below the zone of weakness in the uppermost
asthenosphere, increased pressure counteracts the
effects of higher temperature, and the rocks
gradually strengthen with depth.
 Between the depths of 660 kilometers and 2900
kilometers a more rigid layer, called the
mesosphere (middle sphere) or lower mantle is
found.
 Despite their strength, the rocks of the mesosphere
are still very hot and capable of very gradual flow.

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INNER AND OUTER CORE

 The core, which is composed mostly of an iron-nickel

alloy, is divided into two regions that exhibit very
different mechanical strengths.
 The outer core is a liquid layer 2270 kilometers (1410
miles) thick. It is the convective flow of metallic iron
within this zone that generates Earth’s magnetic field.
 The inner core is a sphere having a radius of 1216
kilometers (754 miles). Despite its higher temperature,
the material in the inner core is stronger (because of
immense pressure) than the outer core and behaves
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like a solid.
LABEL THE EARTH
DIAGRAM

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32
1.2 GEOLOGICAL
PROCESSES

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GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES
1.2.1 PLATE TECTONICS
 According to the plate tectonics model, the uppermost mantle, along with the
overlying crust, behave as a strong, rigid layer, known as lithosphere
(lithos = stone, sphere = a ball) which is broken into pieces called plates.
 The lithosphere overlies a weaker region in the mantle known as the
asthenosphere (asthenos = weak, sphere = a ball).
 The lithosphere is broken into numerous segments called plates, that are in
motion with respect to one another and are continually changing in shape and
size.
 The seven major lithospheric plates are recognized. They are:
- North American Plate - Eurasian Plate
- South American Plate - Australian-Indian Plate
- Pacific Plate - Antarctic Plate
- African Plate
 There are intermediate-sized plates include the Caribbean, Nazca,
Philippine, Arabian, Cocos, Scotia, and Juan de Fuca plates. 34
 In addition, there are over a dozen smaller plates that have been identified.
PLATE TECTONICS CONT’..
 Lithospheric plates move relative to each other at a very slow but
continuous rate that averages about 5 centimeters (2 inches) per year.
 This movement is ultimately driven by the unequal distribution of heat within
Earth.
 Plate are bounded by three distinct types of boundaries, which are
differentiated by the type of movement they exhibit.
 These boundaries are:
a) Divergent boundaries
b) Convergent boundaries
c) Transform fault boundaries
 Each plate is bounded by a combination of these three types of plate
margins.
 For example, the Juan de Fuca plate has a divergent zone on the west, a
convergent boundary on the east, and numerous transform faults, which
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offset segments of the oceanic ridge.
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PLATE TECTONICS CONT’..
DIVERGENT BOUNDARIES (CONSTRUCTIVE
MARGINS)

 Most divergent (di = apart, vergere = to move) boundaries are

located along the crest of oceanic ridges and can be thought of
as constructive plate margins since this is where new oceanic
lithosphere is generated.
 Divergent boundaries are also called spreading centers,
because seafloor spreading occurs at these boundaries.
 As the plates move away from the ridge axis, the fractures that
form are filled with molten rock that wells up from the hot mantle
below.
 This magma cools gradually to produce new seafloor. Adjacent
plates spread apart and new oceanic lithosphere forms between
them. 37
1.2.1 PLATE TECTONICS cont’d…
History of Divergent Plate Boundary

Rising magma beneath a continent

pushes the crust up, producing
numerous fractures, faults, rift
valleys, and volcanic activity

As the crust is stretched and

thinned, rift valleys develop and
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lava flows onto the valley floors,
such as seen today in the East
African Rift Valley
1.2.1 PLATE TECTONICS cont’d…
History of Divergent Plate Boundary

Continued spreading further separates

the continent until it splits apart and a
narrow seaway develops.

As spreading continues, an
39 oceanic ridge system forms, and
an ocean basin develop and
grow.
1.2.1 PLATE TECTONICS cont’d…

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1.2.1 PLATE TECTONICS cont’d…

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EAST AFRICAN RIFT VALLEY
1.2.1 PLATE TECTONICS cont’d…

A rift valley near Quilotoa, Ecuador

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PLATE TECTONICS CONT’..
CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES (DESTRUCTIVE
MARGINS)
 Although new lithosphere is constantly being produced at the oceanic
ridges, our planet is not growing larger, its total surface area remains
constant.
 To balance the addition of newly created lithosphere, older portions
of oceanic lithosphere descend into the mantle along convergent
(con = together, vergere = to move) boundaries.
 Because lithosphere is “destroyed” at convergent boundaries, they
are also called destructive plate margins.
 Convergent plate margins occur where two plates move toward each
other and the motion is accommodated by one plate sliding beneath
the other.
 Also called subduction zones, because they are sites where
lithosphere is descending (being subducted) into the asthenosphere.
 Subduction occurs because the density of the descending 43
lithospheric plate is greater than that of the underlying
asthenosphere.
 1.2.1 PLATE TECTONICS cont’d…
Types of Convergent Plate Boundaries

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Oceanic-oceanic plate boundary: An oceanic trench forms where

one oceanic plate is subducted beneath another. A volcanic island
form from the rising magma generated from the subducting plate
1.2.1 PLATE TECTONICS cont’d…
Types of Convergent Plate Boundaries

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Oceanic-Continental plate boundary: An andesitic volcanic

mountain range is form on the continental plate from the rising
magma generated from the subducting plate
1.2.1 PLATE TECTONICS cont’d…
Types of Convergent Plate Boundaries cont’d…..

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Continental-Continental plate boundary: As the two continental

plates collide, a mountain range is formed in the interior of a new
and larger continent
 PLATE TECTONICS CONT’D..
TRANSFORM FAULT BOUNDARIES (CONSERVATIVE
MARGINS)

 The transform (trans = across, forma = form) fault mostly occur

along fractures in the seafloor, where plates slide horizontally
past one another without the production or destruction of
lithosphere.
 Although lithosphere is neither created nor destroyed along a
transform boundary, the movement between plates results in a
zone of intensely shattered rock and numerous shallow-depth
earthquakes.
 Transform faults change one type of motion between plates into
another type of motion.
 Most commonly, transform faults connect two oceanic ridge
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segments, but they can also connect ridges to trenches and
trenches to trenches.
 1.2.1 PLATE TECTONICS cont’d…
Transform Fault plate boundary

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Most transform faults connect two oceanic ridge segments

 1.2.1 PLATE TECTONICS cont’d…
Transform Fault plate boundary cont’d…

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A transform faults can connect a ridge and a trench

 1.2.1 PLATE TECTONICS cont’d…
Transform Fault plate boundary cont’d…

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A transform faults can also link two trenches

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1.2.2 PROCESS OF GRADATION
 Gradation process can be categorized into two:
a) degradation – the erosion results from weathering
of rock by water, air and ice.
b) aggradations – deposition result in accumulation
of sediment and ultimate building up of rock strata.

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1.2.3 PROCESS OF VOLCANISM

 Volcanism begins when magma created by the

melting of pre-existing rock in the Earth’s interior
reaches the surface of the Earth.

 Magma will erupt if it flows upward rapidly enough to

reach the surface before it can cool and solidify.

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 1.2.3 VOLCANISM
A volcano is a vent in the earth’s crust through which molten rock
materials within the earth, lavas, ashes steam and gas are ejected and
responsible for the formation of plutonic rocks, one solidified at great
depth. Majority of volcanoes are located along the margins of tectonic
plates.

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 1.2.3 VOLCANISM
Volcanism

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 1.2.3 VOLCANISM cont’d….

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VOLCANO ERUPTIONS

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 1.2.3 VOLCANISM cont’d….
TYPES OF VOLCANO
(i) CINDER CONE
- Accumulation of largely cinder-sized materials around
the vent
- Materials pile steeply and are not well cemented together
- Not usually taller than 1000 feet

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 1.2.3 VOLCANISM cont’d….

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Cross-section of a cinder cone

 1.2.3 VOLCANISM cont’d….
TYPES OF VOLCANO

(i) CINDER CONE cont’d…

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Large, bowl shaped crater at the summit of cinder cone

PARICUTIN CINDER CONE VOLCANO
IN MEXICO

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 1.2.3 VOLCANISM cont’d….
TYPES OF VOLCANO cont’….

(ii) SHEILD VOLCANOES

 Huge collections of basaltic lavas associated with mid- plate
hot spots
 Lava is low viscosity and flows well leaving volcano with low,
broad profile

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Diagrammatic view of the internal structure

of a shield volcano
 1.2.3 VOLCANISM cont’d….
TYPES OF VOLCANO cont’….

(ii) SHEILD VOLCANOES cont’…

Mauna Loa on Hawaii

is an active shield
volcano that has
erupted 33 times since
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1843
 1.2.3 VOLCANISM cont’d….
TYPES OF VOLCANO cont’….

(iii) STRATOVOLCANOES or COMPOSITE VOLCANOES

Associates with subduction zones

 Steep sided, symmetrical cones of

large dimension built of alternating
layers of lava, volcanic ash, cinders,
blocks and bombs

 69
may rise as much as 8000 feet
above their base
 1.2.3 VOLCANISM cont’d….
TYPES OF VOLCANO cont’d….

(iii) STRATOVOLCANOES or COMPOSITE VOLCANOES

Cross-section of
stratovolcanoes

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Mayon volcano in
Philippines. It erupted 13
times during 1900s
 1.2.3 VOLCANISM cont’d….
TYPES OF VOLCANO cont’d….

(iv) LAVA DOMES / VOLCANIC DOMES

 Steep-sided, bulbous masses of viscous magma

 Composed of felsic magma and occasionally intermediate

magma that was forced upward under great pressure but was too
viscous to flow

 Dangerous because they erupt explosively

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 1.2.3 VOLCANISM cont’d….
TYPES OF VOLCANO cont’….

(iv) LAVA DOMES / VOLCANIC DOMES

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Lava domes are bulbous masses of magma that are emplaced in

craters of composite volcano or stand alone as irregularly shaped
mountains flanked
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 1.2.3 VOLCANISM cont’d….

Figure : Types of volcano in different height

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 The three main types of volcano are:
 Cone (mainly andesite) – formed by many eruptions of lava flows and pyroclastic deposits. These
build up a cone, over hundreds of thousands of years. Ruapehu is a typical cone volcano.
 Caldera (mainly rhyolite) – a basin formed when a volcano collapses during an eruption.
Pyroclastic deposits then build up around it. Magma often continues to come up through feeder
dikes within the caldera or around the edges. Lake Taupō and Lake Rotorua are both calderas that
are now filled by lakes.
 Volcanic field (mainly basalt) – isolated volcanoes where magma erupts once at the surface.
Normally there is no single vent that keeps erupting. Shown here are different types within a field:
a crater, which is a hole in the ground formed by an explosion; a lava shield, which is a low cone;
and a scoria cone, which is higher. Dikes are cracks filled with magma, and act as feeders for
surface eruptions. Auckland city occupies a typical volcanic field.

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QUESTIONS TO PONDER

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1.3 GEOLOGICAL
TIME SCALE

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GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE
 The geologic time scale is a hierarchical scale in which the
4.6 billion year history of Earth is divided into time units of
varying duration.
 The geologic time scale subdivides geologic time into a
hierarchy of increasingly shorter time intervals: each time
subdivision has a specific name.
 The geologic time scale organizes all of Earth history into
blocks of time during which the planet’s major events
occurred.
 It did not result from the work of any one individual but
rather evolved, primarily during the 19th century, through the
efforts of many people. 82
GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE
CONT’..
 Geologists think about time in both relative and numerical terms.
 Relative dating of the various rocks exposed within a rock outcrop
asks and answer the questions
“Which rocks are older?”
“Which rocks are younger?”
Younger rocks overlie older rocks, quite logically the older rocks had
to be there first for the younger rocks to be laid on top of them.
 Numerical or absolute dating of rocks answer the question
“How old?”
Rock dating techniques developed during the twentieth century,
based on the constant decay of radioactive elements. The geologist
can specify the numerical ages of some rocks.
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GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE CONT’..
(I)RELATIVE DATING METHOD
 Relative dating places events in sequential order but does not tell how long
ago an event took place.
 The six fundamental geologic principles used in relative dating are
- superposition: in an undisturbed sequence of sedimentary rocks, the
oldest rocks are on the bottom and the youngest rocks are on the top.
- original horizontality: sediments are originally deposited horizontally
under the influence of gravity.
- lateral continuity: a layer of sediment extends laterally in all
directions until it thins and pinches out or terminates against the edge of
the depositional basin.
- cross-cutting relationship: an igneous intrusion or a fault must be
younger than the rock it intrudes into or displaces.
- inclusions: inclusions or the fragments of one rock contained within a
layer of another, are older than the rock layer itself.
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- fossil succession: fossil assemblages succeed one another through
time in a regular and predictable order.
(I) RELATIVE DATING METHOD
CONT’..
 An unconformity is a surface of erosion, nondeposition, or both
separating younger rocks from older rocks. These surfaces
encompass long periods of geologic time for which we have no
geologic record at that location.
 There are three types of unconformities
- disconformity: a surface of erosion or nondeposition
separating younger from older rocks, both of which are parallel with
one another
- angular unconformity: an erosional surface on tilted or folded
strata over which younger rocks were deposited
- nonconformity: an erosional surface cut into metamorphic or
igneous rocks that is covered by younger sedimentary rocks

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GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE CONT’..
(II) NUMERICAL/ABSOLUTE DATING METHOD

 Although most of the isotopes of the 92 naturally

occurring elements are stable, some are radioactive
and spontaneously decay to other more stable
isotopes of elements, releasing energy in the process.
 By discovery of radioactivity, geologist had a tool to
accurately date geologic events, and show that Earth
was indeed very old.
 Radioactivity produces heat, Earth’s internal heat that
did not rely on residual cooling from a molten magma
can be explain.
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GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE

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THANK YOU

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