THEORY AND DESIGN OF

RECIPROCATING ENGINES

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 Syllabus
• I - Introduction
1. General - History, Types of Power Plant,
Principle of operation & Classification of
Engines
2. Two Stroke & Four Stroke Engines;
Principles of Engine Operation (SI & CI),
Scavenging - Systems, Theoretical
Processes…, Valve/ Port Timing…,
Merits & Demerits…,scavenging pumps
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 Syllabus…
• II - Engine Components
– Classification/Types,
– Function,
– Materials,
– Constructional Details,
– Design and
– Manufacturing Processes
of The Engine Components
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 Syllabus…
3. Cylinder Head, Cylinders & Liners
4. Piston, Rings & Pin
5. Connecting Rod
6. Crank Shaft
7. Flywheel, Camshaft
8. Valve & Valve Mechanism
9. Crank case
10. Manifolds
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 Chapter 1
General
Historical development of automobiles
Types Of Power Plant
Principle of Engine Operation
Classification Of Engines
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 “History is very valuable,
because it is the combination of
the hard work & sacrifices that brilliant
people made to forge the
world that we live in.”
- Anonymous

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 History
•Automobiles Through the Years
Since originated on late 1800s,
Changed and Developed in response to
-Consumer Wishes,
-Economic Conditions, and
-Advancing Technology
Current designs continue to reflect economic
awareness, although many different markets
exists

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 History…
•4,000 Years ago
Used for Transportation in India
•15th Century
Portuguese & Chinese Created Wheel
that Turned Under its Own Power
•1600
Small Steam-Powered Engine Models
developed

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 Cugnot Steam Tractor
•1769-First Automobile-By Nicolas Cugnot
Three-wheeled steam-powered vehicle
Speed ≈ 3.2 km/h (2mph)
Had to stop every 20min
to build up fresh head of steam

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 Few Records
• 1801 Heavy steam automobiles introduced in
England
• 1802 Steam powered coach journeyed 160km
(100mi)
• Mid 1800-England-extensive network of steam
coach lines
• 1830 Steam carriages used for first omni bus
service in London
• 1906 Stanley steamer established world land
speed record 205.44km/h(121.573mph)

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 Internal - Combustion Engine
• 1860One-cylinder engine, kerosene- fuel.
• 1864Two-cylinder gasoline engine
• 1876Otto built four-stroke gas engine
2-stroke engines accomplish the same steps, but
less efficiently & with more exhaust emissions.
• 1885Gasoline-powered engine mounted
onto bicycle-motorcycle &
• 1887First car- included steering tiller & 4-
speed gearbox - Daimler & Maybach

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• In 1885 German engineer Gottlieb Daimler mounted
an engine of his own design into a wood-framed
vehicle.
• The vehicle had 4 wheels, including 2 round
stabilizing wheels.
• World’s first
motorcycle.

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 Early Car
• 1885First practical car (gasoline car)
– By Karl Benz
Incorporating differential drive & other
components

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 Design Improvements
• 1891Peugeot automobile paced 1,046-km
(650-mi)
• 1894Instead of installing engine under
seats, front-mounted engine under hood
along with clutch, gears, & separate
construction of the chassis designed
• 1899Fiat in Italy – began building cars

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 Horseless Carriage
• 1893
-By Duryea brothers -Original Horseless
Carriage - -America’s First Internal
Combustion Motor Car

-Henry Ford built IC Engine

• 1896- Henry Ford used
engine power on bicycle
steered by tiller
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 Early Electric Cars
• 1800s Electric engines (quiet, slow speed
& not scaring to horse & people),
enjoyed great popularity
• 1899Electric car designed & driven to set
a record of 105.8810 km/h
(65.79 mph)
• Most electric cars-top speed 48km/h
(30mph), could go only 80km (50mi)
before recharging

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 20 th
Century
• For many years commonly used power sources
- steam engines, gasoline engines and
electric motors.
• Gasoline powered engines became universal
choice to have – longer trips & faster speeds
• 1902 First American car (Locomobile)
had 4-cyinder,water cooled, front
mounted gasoline engine – very similar
in design to most cars today

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 Shaping Up!
• 1906 Gasoline powered cars had
- a hood covered front mounted engine
- two kerosene/acetylene lamps (head lights)
- fenders covering wheels & step up platforms
- passenger compartment-behind engine
• 1911 Electric self starter introduced
to replace hand crank to start engine
Electric head lights introduced

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 Ford
• 1903First automobile – Ford Model A
each year new Ford models B, C...
• 1908-1927 – 15 million cars of Model T
adopting innovative
assembly line
method

Affordable for an
average wage earner!
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 Assembly of a Model T
Two workers
mount an engine
into the chassis
of a Ford Model
T that was put
together at
earlier points on
the assembly
line.
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 Luxury Automobiles
(For comfort & style rather than speed)
• 1909 Rolls-Royce Silver Ghost
-quiet 6-cylinder engine, leather interior,
folding windscreens & aluminum body.

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 Desgin Improvements
• 1920Synchromesh Transmission
(for easy gear shifting),
improved carburetors,
shatterproof glass,
heaters, balloon tires,
4 - wheel hydraulic brake systems,
pressed-steel wheels, and
mechanically operated wind shield
wipers incorporated
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 Vintage Models
Made to individual specifications
• 1929 – Graham Paige DC Phaeton
8-cylinder engine & aluminum body

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 Improvements
• 1930 -1937
Large Engines (12-16 cylinder) &
large -luxurious Bodies
Independent front suspension, (made big
cars more comfortable )
more reliable braking systems,
higher-compression engines (for more hp)
• 1936 - Mercedes introduced World’s first
Diesel Car
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Convenient, Reliable& Inexpensive
• 1937Pontiac De Luxe Sedan
roomy interior rear hinged back door
suited to the needs of families

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 Improvements
• 1940 Automatic transmission, sealed-beam
headlights, and tubeless tires
Studebaker Champion two-door sedan

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 “Car For The People”
• 1949A combination of look and economy that
remained popular for more than four decades.

VW Beetle

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 “Car For The People”

Volkswagen “Beetle”
With a rear-mounted engine and
rounded, bug like shape, appealed to
buyers seeking utilitarian good looks, VW New Beetle
easy serviceability, and fuel efficiency. In early 1998 Volkswagen put the first
The classic Beetle became the best- “New Beetle” on the American market
selling car of all time, with more than 21
million sold.
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 New Features
• 1950Air conditioning
electrically operated car windows
seat adjusters.
change over from the 6-volt to the12-
volt ignition system, for better engine
performance and more reliable
operation of electrical accessories.
Power steering & Power Brakes!
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 Powerful
High-performance Cars
• 1957Mercedes-Benz 300SL-Gullwing
compact & stylized
230kmh(144mph)
-Door opens upward
Like gull’s wings

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 Consumers Loved The Look
• 1957 Cadillac El Dorado convertible
consumers loved the look, demanded fins
of increasing size
until 1960s

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 Improvements
•1960 American cars-built Small, Increased
Engine Size & Horse Power
Heating and ventilating systems
became standard equipment.
Automatic transmissions, power
brakes & power steering-widespread.
Styling prevailed over practicality!
•1970 Catalytic converters introduced to
reduce exhaust emissions.
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 “Muscle Car”
•1964 - Mustang Ford’s best early sales
success since introduction of Model T.
popular characteristics
small, fast design,
excellent handling,
powerful engine &
distinctive look.

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 Advances in Technology
•1980 Digital speedometer & electronic
prompts to service parts
-Sporty cars & family mini vans
-Better engine control & use of
innovative types of fuel
•1981 On-board computer to monitor engine
performance
-A solar-powered vehicle, traveled 3,000
km (1,864 mi) in Australia in six days.
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 Modern Cars
• 1992 MR-2 Turbo T-bar Toyota
aerodynamically shaped, light & compact

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 New Technologies
• 1997 Gas-Electric Hybrids-Toyota Prius
four-seat hybrid electric vehicle (HEV)
first HEV- Japan

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 Better-smarter
•1990s Pollution control laws adopted
•1996 EV1 all electric car – first sold by GM
- Redesigned, quieter Diesel engines by
Volkswagon – used in passenger cars!
- Engines run on Hydrogen tested
• Expanded use of computer technology,
development of stronger & lighter materials & research
on pollution – produce better-smarter automobiles

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 Computer control!
•1990s Computer control of automobile systems
In modern cars, CPU -manages overall engine
performance.
Microprocessors regulating other systems share
data with the CPU
Computers manage F/A mixture ratios, ign.timing, &
emission levels, adjust antilock braking & traction
control systems, control air conditioning, heating,
sound system & information displayed in dash board

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 New Technologies
•1980s The notion that a car would “talk” to
its driver was science fiction; by the
1990s it had become reality.
•1990s Onboard navigation - By using the
satellite-aided global positioning
system (GPS), a computer in the
automobile can pinpoint the vehicle’s
location within a few meters

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 New Technologies…
• The onboard navigation system uses -electric
compass, digitized maps, a display screen
showing location of vehicle relative to intended
destination
After mentioning, computer locates destination
& directs driver, offering alternative routes if
needed
Also GPS system helps in emergency
situations to locate & direct the concerned
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 New Technologies…
• Cars equipped with computers and cellular
phones can link to Internet to obtain constantly
updated traffic reports, weather information,
route directions and other data
• Built-in computer systems may be used to
automatically obtain business information over
Internet and manage personal affairs while
driving

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• Devises to
Looking Ahead
-reduce driver errors and poor driving habits.
-prevent intoxicated drivers from starting their
vehicles.
-Anti-collision systems with sensors and
warning signals
-slow the vehicle if it is following another
vehicle too closely
-warn drivers when another vehicle is in their
“blind spot.” Courtesy – Microsoft Encarta

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 Types Of Power Plant
• An Engine is a device which transforms one
form of energy into another form.
• Most Engines convert thermal energy into
mechanical work &therefore they are called
Heat Engines.
• Heat Engine is a device which transforms the
chemical energy of a fuel into thermal energy
& utilizes this thermal energy to perform
useful work.
• Thus thermal energy is converted to
mechanical energy in a Heat Engine.
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 Heat Engines

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Classification of Heat Engines

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 Heat Engines
•Of the various types of heat engines,
the most widely used ones are

 Reciprocating internal combustion

engine,
 Gas turbine and
 Steam turbine

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Advantages Reciprocating I C Engine
• Mechanical simplicity and improved power
plant efficiency (absence of heat exchangers)
• All its components work at an average temp.
which is much below the maximum temp. of
the working fluid in the cycle. Therefore, very
high working fluid temperatures can be
employed resulting in higher thermal
efficiency.
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Advantages…
• Higher thermal efficiency can be obtained with
moderate maximum working pressure of the
fluid in the cycle
• Weight of power ratio is less than that of the
steam turbine plant
• It has been possible to develop reciprocating
internal combustion engines of very small
power output with reasonable thermal
efficiency and cost.
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Disadvantages
• Problem of vibration caused by the
reciprocating components.
Considering all the above factors the
reciprocating internal combustion engines
have been found suitable for use in
automobiles, motor-cycles and scooters,
power boats, ships, slow speed aircraft,
locomotives and power units of relatively
small output.

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Cross Section of a SI Engine

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Basic geometry of
reciprocating IC Engine
Vc Clearance,
Vd Displaced, and
Vt Total cylinder volumes
TC (TDC) top dead centre
BC (BDC) bottom dead centre

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2-Stroke Operating Cycle

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Engine Classifications

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 Engine Classifications…
1.Application.
2.Basic engine design

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 Engine Classifications…
3. Working cycle
4. Valve or port
design & location.

(c)
(a) Cross, (b) Loop, (c) Uniflow Scavenging

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 Engine Classifications…
5. Fuel
6. Method of mixture preparation.
7. Method of ignition
8. Combustion chamber design.
9. Method of load control.
10. Method of cooling.

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References:
• Microsoft Encarta
• Britanica Encyclopedia
• Theory & Practice in IC Engines By C F Taylor
• Fundamentals of I C Engines-J B Heywood
• Internal Combustion Engines-Ganesan
• Internal Combustion Engines-M L Mathur & S P
Sharma

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