Dr. Muhammad Zubair Ahmad

Classical Encryption Techniques
Dr. Muhammad Zubair Ahmad

Cryptography
 The word ‘Cryptography’ was coined by
combining two Greek words, ‘Krypto’
(means Hidden) and ‘Graphene’ (means
Writing)
 The art of protecting information by

transforming it into an unreadable format
is known as Cryptography
Origin of Cryptography
 Human being from ages had two inherent
needs
 to communicate and share information and
 to communicate selectively.
 These two needs gave rise to the art of
coding the messages in such a way that
only the intended people could have
access to the information.
 Unauthorized people could not extract any

information, even if the scrambled
messages fell in their hand.
 The art of cryptography is considered to
be born along with the art of writing.
 As civilizations evolved, human beings

got organized in tribes, groups, and
kingdoms.
 This led to the emergence of ideas such as

power, battles, supremacy, and politics.
 These ideas further fueled the natural need
of people to communicate secretly with
selective recipient which in turn ensured
the continuous evolution of cryptography
as well.
 The roots of cryptography are found in

Roman and Egyptian civilizations.
The Oldest Cryptographic Techniques
 The first known evidence of cryptography
can be traced to the use of ‘Hieroglyph’.
 Some 2000 BC, the Egyptians used to
communicate by messages written in
Hieroglyph.
 This code was the secret known only to
the scribes who used to transmit messages
on behalf of the kings.
4000 years earlier

Egyptians Hieroglyph
 Later, the scholars moved on to using
simple mono-alphabetic substitution
ciphers during 500 to 600 BC.
 This involved replacing alphabets of
message with other alphabets with some
secret rule.
 This rule became a key to retrieve the
message back from the garbled message.
 The earlier Roman method of
cryptography, popularly known as the
Caesar Shift Cipher, relies on shifting the
letters of a message by an agreed number,
the recipient of this message would then
shift the letters back by the same number
and obtain the original message.
2500 years earlier

Roman Caesar Shift
Cipher
Some Basic Terminologies
 Plaintext - Original message
 Ciphertext - Coded message
 Cipher - Algorithm for transforming plaintext
to ciphertext
 Key - Information used in cipher known only
to sender/receiver
 Encipher (Encrypt) - Converting plaintext to
ciphertext
 Decipher (Decrypt) - Recovering ciphertext
from plaintext
Some Basic Terminologies
 Cryptography - Study of encryption
principles/methods
 Cryptanalysis (Codebreaking) - Study of
principles/ methods of deciphering
ciphertext without knowing key
 Cryptology - field of both cryptography
and cryptanalysis
Cryptographic Dimensions
 Cryptographic systems are characterized
along three independent dimensions
1. The type of operations

2. The number of keys
3. The processing ways
 The type of operations
 All encryption algorithms are based on
two general principles:
 substitution, in which each element in the
plaintext (bit, letter, group of bits or
letters) is mapped into another element,
 transposition, in which elements in the
plaintext are rearranged.
 Sometimes, product systems also used
that involve multiple stages of
substitutions and transpositions.
 The number of keys
 If both sender and receiver use the same
key, the system is referred to as
symmetric, single-key, secret-key, or
conventional encryption.
 If the sender and receiver use different

keys, the system is referred to as
asymmetric, two-key, or public-key
encryption.
 The processing ways
 A block cipher processes one input block
of elements at a time, producing an
output block for each input block.
 A stream cipher processes the input

elements continuously, producing output
element continuously, as it goes along.
Symmetric Encryption Model
Asymmetric Encryption Model (a)
Asymmetric Encryption Model (b)
Requirements
 Two requirements for secure use of symmetric
encryption:
 a strong encryption algorithm
 a secret key known only to sender / receiver
 Mathematically have:
Y = EK(X)
X = DK(Y)
 Assume encryption algorithm is known
 Implies a secure channel to distribute key
Cryptanalytic Attacks
 Ciphertext only
 only know algorithm & ciphertext, is statistical,
know or can identify plaintext
 Known plaintext
 know/suspect plaintext & ciphertext
 Chosen plaintext
 select plaintext and obtain ciphertext
 Chosen ciphertext
 select ciphertext and obtain plaintext
 Chosen text
 select plaintext or ciphertext to encrypt/decrypt
More Definitions
 Unconditional security
 no matter how much computer power or time is
available, the cipher cannot be broken since the
ciphertext provides insufficient information to
uniquely determine the corresponding plaintext
 Computational security
 given limited computing resources (e.g. time
needed for calculations is greater than age of
Universe), the cipher cannot be broken
Average time to exhaustive Brute Force
The Types of Operations
 The Substitution Cipher
 A substitution cipher is one in which the
letters of plaintext are replaced by other
letters or by numbers or symbols.
 If the plaintext is viewed as a sequence of

bits, then substitution involves replacing
plaintext bit patterns with ciphertext bit
patterns.
The Types of Operations
 The Substitution Cipher
 When letters are involved, the following
conventions is used:
 plaintext is always in lowercase;

 CIPHERTEXT is in UPPERCASE;
 key values are in italicized lowercase.
The Substitution Ciphers
 The Caesar Cipher
 The earliest known, and the simplest, use
of a substitution cipher was by Julius
Caesar.
 The Caesar cipher involves replacing
each letter of the alphabet with the letter
standing few (typically three) places
further down the alphabet.
 For example
plaintext: meet me after the toga party
ciphertest: PHHW PH DIWHU WKH WRJD SDUWB
Plaintext a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
Ciphertext D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A B C
 Note that the alphabet is wrapped around,
so that the letter following Z is A.
 We can define the transformation by
listing all possibilities, as follows:
Ciphertext D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A B C
 OR if we assign a numerical equivalent to

each letter
Ciphertext 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
 The Modulo Math states that
a mod n to be the remainder when a is
divided by n.
For example, 11 mod 7 = 4.
 So, mathematically, the algorithm can be
expressed as follows. For each plaintext
letter p, substitute the ciphertext letter C.
C = E(3, p) = (p + 3) mod 26
 A shift may be of any amount, so that the
general Caesar algorithm is
C = E(k, p) = (p + k) mod 26
Where takes on a value in the range 1 to 25.
 The decryption algorithm is simply

p = D(k, C) = (C - k) mod 26
 The Caesar Cipher (ROT-13)
 The Caesar Cipher - Problem
 If it is known that a given ciphertext is a
Caesar cipher, then a brute-force
cryptanalysis is easily performed.
 Simply try all the 25 possible keys.

 The Caesar
Cipher-Problem
 Three important characteristics of this
problem enabled possible brute force
cryptanalysis:
1. The encryption and decryption
algorithms are known.
2. There are only 25 keys to try.
3. The language of the plaintext is
known and easily recognizable.
 The algorithms are usually known.
 To make brute force difficult, we should
employ a large number of keys.
 If the language of the plaintext is
unknown, then plaintext output may not
be recognizable. The input may be
abbreviated or compressed in some
fashion, again making recognition
difficult.
Sample of unknown or compressed plaintext

 The Mono-alphabetic Cipher
 A dramatic increase in the key space can
be achieved by allowing an arbitrary
substitution.
 The Mono-alphabetic Cipher (with keyword)
 A dramatic increase in the key space can
be achieved by allowing an arbitrary
substitution.
 The Mono-alphabetic Cipher - Problem
 If the cryptanalyst knows the nature of
the plaintext (e.g., non-compressed
English text), then the analyst can exploit
the regularities of the language.
 Every language has certain frequency
distribution of its letters, so as English
language.
 The frequency distribution of English
language is as follows:
 To see how such a cryptanalysis might
proceed, we give a partial example here.
The ciphertext to be solved is
UZQSOVUOHXMOPVGPOZPEVSGZWSZ
OPFPESXUDBMETSXAIZVUEPHZHMDZ
SHZOWSFPAPPDTSVPQUZWYMXUZUH
SXEPYEPOPDZSZUFPOMBZWPFUPZHM
DJUDTMOHMQ
 As a first step, the relative frequency of
the letters can be determined and
compared to a standard frequency
distribution for English.
 If the message were long enough, this
technique alone might be sufficient, but
because this is a relatively short message,
we cannot expect an exact match.
 Comparing this breakdown with frequency
distribution of English, it seems likely that
cipher letters P and Z are the equivalents of
plain letters e and t, but it is not certain which is
which.
 The letters S,U,O,M, and H are all of relatively
high frequency and probably correspond to
plain letters from the set {a, h, i, n, o, r, s}.
 The letters with the lowest frequencies (namely,
A,B,G,Y, I, J) are likely included in the set {b,
j, k, q, v, x, z}
UZQSOVUOHXMOPVGPOZPEVSGZWSZOPFPESXUDBMETSXAIZ
t a e e te a that e e a a
VUEPHZHMDZSHZOWSFPAPPDTSVPQUZWYMXUZUHSX
e t t a t h a e ee a e t h t a
EPYEPOPDZSZUFPOMBZWPFUPZHMDJUDTMOHMQ
e e e tat e t he t
it was disclosed yesterday that several informal but

direct contacts have been made with political
representatives of the vietcong in moscow
 The Homophone Cipher
 The great mathematician Carl Friedrich
Gauss believed that he had devised an
unbreakable cipher using homophones.
 The Homophonic Substitution cipher is a

substitution cipher in which single
plaintext letters can be replaced by any of
several different ciphertext letters.
 They are generally much more difficult to
break than standard substitution ciphers.
 The number of characters each letter is

replaced by is part of the key, e.g. the
letter 'E' might be replaced by any of 5
different symbols, while the letter 'Q' may
only be substituted by 1 symbol.
 The letter 'E' is usually the most common
letter in english, so the most common
ciphertext letter will probably be 'E'. If
we allow the letter 'E' to be replaced by
any of 3 different characters, then we can
no longer just take the most common
letter, since the letter count of 'E' is
spread over several characters.
DXSFZ E HCVI T P G A Q L K J RU O WMY B N
Ciphertex 9 7 3 5 0 4 6
t 2
1
Plaintext d e f e n d t h e e a s t w a l l o f c a s t l e
Ciphertext F 7 E Z 5 F U C 2 1 D R 6 M 9 P P 0 E S D 4 U P 1
 The Playfair Cipher
 The Playfair cipher was the first practical
digraph (pair of alphabets) substitution
cipher.
 If
 The scheme was invented in 1854 by

Charles Wheatstone but was named after
Lord Playfair who promoted the use of
the cipher.
 The Playfair algorithm is based on the use of a
5×5 matrix of letters constructed using a
keyword.
 If the keyword is monarchy. The matrix is
constructed by filling in the letters of the
keyword (minus duplicates) from left to right
and from top to bottom, and then filling in the
remainder of the matrix with the remaining
letters in alphabetic order.
 The letters I and J count as one letter (Normally
J is omitted).
M O N A R
C H Y B D
E F G I/J K
L P Q S T
U V W X Z
 Plaintext is encrypted two letters at a
time, according to the following rules:
 Repeating plaintext letters that are in the same pair
are separated with a filler letter, such as x, so that
balloon would be treated as ba lx lo on.
 x (sometime z) is also used to fill second letter in
the digram if there is an odd number of letter.
 Two plaintext letters that fall in the same row of the
matrix are each replaced by the letter to the right,
with the first element of the row circularly
following the last. For example, AR is encrypted as
RM.
 Plaintext is encrypted two letters at a
time, according to the following rules:
 Two plaintext letters that fall in the same column
are each replaced by the letter beneath, with the top
element of the column circularly following the last.
For example, MU is encrypted as CM.
 Otherwise, each plaintext letter in a pair is replaced
by the letter that lies in its own row and the column
occupied by the other plaintext letter. Thus, HS
becomes BP and EA becomes IM (or JM, as the
encipherer wishes).
 If keyword is Monarchy and
 plaintext is Instruments
 Then first break the plaintext is converted into
cipher text as follows:
M O N A R
Plaintext in st ru me nt sx
C H Y B D
Ciphertext GA TL MZ CL RQ XA E F G I/J K
L P Q S T
U V W X Z
 The Hill Cipher
 Hill cipher invented by Lester S. Hill in
1929.
 It is the first polygraphic cipher in which
it was practical (though barely) to operate
on more than three symbols at once.
 Each letter is represented by a number
modulo 26.
 Often the simple scheme A = 0, B = 1, …,
Z = 25 is used, but this is not an essential
feature of the cipher.
 The Hill Cipher
 To encrypt a message, each block of n
letters (considered as an n-component
vector) is multiplied by an invertible nxn
matrix, against modulus 26. To decrypt
the message, each block is multiplied by
the inverse of the matrix used for
encryption.
 The Hill Cipher
 Suppose we have to encrypt the message
‘act’ (n=3).The key is ‘gybnqkurp’ which
can be written as the n x n matrix:

¿ 𝟔 𝟐𝟒 𝟏 ¿𝟎
[ ¿ 𝟏𝟑 𝟏𝟔 𝟏𝟎
¿ 𝟐𝟎 𝟏𝟕 𝟏𝟓 ] [ ] ¿𝟐
¿ 𝟏𝟗
act
gybnqkurp
 The Hill Cipher
Encryption

¿ 𝟔 𝟐𝟒 𝟏 ¿𝟎 ¿ 𝟔𝟕 ¿ 𝟏𝟓
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ]
¿ 𝟏𝟑 𝟏𝟔 𝟏𝟎 ¿ 𝟐 = ¿ 𝟐𝟐𝟐 ≡ ¿𝟏𝟒 ( 𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝟐𝟔 )
¿ 𝟐𝟎 𝟏𝟕 𝟏𝟓 ¿ 𝟏𝟗 ¿ 𝟑𝟏𝟗 ¿𝟕
gybnqkurp act POH
 The Hill Cipher
Decryption
−𝟏
¿ 𝟔 𝟐𝟒 𝟏 ¿ 𝟖𝟓 𝟏𝟎
[ ¿ 𝟏𝟑 𝟏𝟔 𝟏𝟎
¿ 𝟐𝟎 𝟏𝟕 𝟏𝟓

( gybnqkurp )
] [
−𝟏
¿ 𝟐𝟏𝟏𝟐 𝟖 ]
≡ ¿ 𝟐𝟏𝟖 𝟐𝟏 ( 𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝟐𝟔 )
¿ 𝟖 𝟓 𝟏𝟎 ¿ 𝟏𝟓 ¿ 𝟐𝟔𝟎 ¿𝟎
[ ¿ 𝟐𝟏 𝟖 𝟐𝟏
¿ 𝟐𝟏 𝟏𝟐 𝟖 ][ ] [ ] [ ]
¿ 𝟏𝟒 = ¿ 𝟓𝟕𝟒 ≡ ¿ 𝟐 ( 𝒎𝒐𝒅 𝟐𝟔 )
¿𝟕 ¿𝟓𝟑𝟗 ¿ 𝟏𝟗
act
POH
 The Hill Cipher
 To conclude this Hill Cipher
𝐂=𝐊𝐏 𝑚𝑜𝑑 26

−𝟏
𝐏= 𝐊 𝐂 𝑚𝑜𝑑 26
 where C and P are column vectors of n

values representing Ciphertext and Plaintext
and K is n x n matrix represents the key
 The Vigenère Cipher
 Vigenère Cipher is a method of
encrypting alphabetic text. It uses a
simple form of polyalphabetic
substitution.
 A polyalphabetic cipher is any cipher
based on substitution, using multiple
substitution alphabets. The encryption of
the original text is done using the
Vigenère square or Vigenère table.
Vigenère
Square
or Vigenère square or Vigenère table.
Vigenère
table.
 The Vigenère Cipher
 The table consists of the alphabets written
out 26 times in different rows, each
alphabet shifted cyclically to the left
compared to the previous alphabet.
 At different points in the encryption
process, the cipher uses a different
alphabet from one of the rows.
 The alphabet used at each point depends
on a repeating keyword.
 The Vigenère Cipher (Example)
 Plaintext : geeks for geeks
 Keyword : ayush
 Ciphertext : GCYCZFMLYLEIM
 For generating key, the given keyword is
repeated in a circular manner until it
matches the length of the plain text.
 The keyword "ayush" generates the key
"ayushayushayu"
 The plain text is then encrypted using the
process explained below.
Keyword
Encryption
Process Plaintext
Ciphertext
Plaintext
Decryption
Process
Keyword
Ciphertext
 The Vernam Cipher (One time pad)
 In Vernam Cipher we assign a number
to each character of the Plain-Text, like (a
= 0, b = 1, c = 2, … z = 25).
 We take a key to encrypt the plain text
which length should be equal to the
length of the plain text.
 The Vernam Cipher
 Assign a number to each character of the
plain-text and the key according to
alphabetical order.
 Add both the number (Corresponding
plain-text character number and Key
character number).
 Subtract 26 from the number if the added
number is greater than 25, if it isn’t then
leave it.
 The Vernam Cipher (One time pad)
 The Vernam Cipher (Encryption)
abcde f gh i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Plaintext r a m s w a m i
PN 17 0 12
18 22 0 12 8
Key r a n g e e l a
KN 17 0 136 4 4 11 0
J=PN+KN 34 0 25
24 26 4 23 8
Add -26, If J>25 -26 -26
Result 8 0 25 24 0 4 23 8
Ciphertext I A Z Y A E X I
 The Vernam Cipher (Decryption)
abcde f gh i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Ciphertext I A Z AY E X I
CN 8 0 25 24
0 4 23 8
Key r a n eg e l a
KN 17 0 13 46 4 11 0
J=CN-KN -9 0 12 18
-4 0 12 8
Add 26, If J<0 26 26
Result 17 0 12 18 22 0 12 8
Plaintext r a m s w a m i
 The VIC Cipher
 The VIC Cipher uses a table which
allows changing letters of plaintext into
numbers. It is called a Straddling
checkerboard.
 It differs from tables used in other
substitution ciphers because it produces
shorter sequences of numbers (it is much
more comfortable for sending to the
second party).
 The VIC Cipher
 The straddling checkerboard can be
created in the following form.
 The highest row is populated with the ten
digits from 0 to 9.
 The second row is typically filled with
popular letters in any order.
 In English, a mnemonic ESTONIA-R
can be used to remember the most
frequent letters.
 The VIC Cipher
 Free cells should be left under any two
digits.
 Each of both lower rows receives one of
the two remaining digits, which isn't used
in the second row.
 Then, the two rows should be filled with
letters in alphabetical order.
 Because of two empty remaining cells,
two additional special characters may be
entered into the table.
 The VIC Cipher
 They can be used for special purposes or
shortcuts agreed previously between the
two parties.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Straddling E T A O N R I S
checkerboard
2 B C D F G H J K L M
6 P Q / U V W X Y Z .
 The VIC Cipher
 During encryption, using VIC one should
replace letters of the message by numbers
created based on numbers of rows and
columns.
 The most popular letters should be
replaced by only one digit of the column
(that results in producing shorter
ciphertext).
 The VIC Cipher
 The next step is to add some specified
numbers to the all digits of the created
sequence.
 One should add one by one all digits of
the changing message to all digits of the
secret sequence. The addition is done
modulo 10, so if the result is bigger than
10 then the tens digit should be discarded.
 The VIC Cipher
 The received digits can be used as a
ciphertext and send to the second party.
Sometimes, it is a good idea to change
digits back into letters.
 After finding one of the two digits which
are assigned to the two lower rows, one
should use a proper two-digit number.
 The VIC Cipher
 Decrypting can be performed using the
same straddling checkerboard, the
same secret number and the steps
performed in reverse order.
 The secret number's digits should be
subtracted from ciphertext's digits.
 If any of the results are smaller than 0,
then one should add 10 to the ciphertext's
digits.
 The VIC Cipher
 There are many modifications of the VIC
cipher. Changes can be introduced in the
straddling checkerboard by changing the
order of letters.
 The received ciphertext's characters can
be modified at the end of encryption
using one of the transposition ciphers'
algorithms.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Straddling Checkerboard E T A O N R I S
Encryption 6 P Q / U V W X Y Z .
mary queen of scots

Plaintext
m a r y q u e e n o f s c o t s
No. from Stradling
29 3 7 67 61 63 0 0 5 4 23 9 21 4 1 9
Checkboard
Single digit from

2 9 3 7 6 7 6 1 6 3 0 0 5 42 3 9 2 1419
Checkboard
Add Key (1542) 1 5 4 2 1 5 4 2 1 5 4 2 1 5 4 2 1 5 4 2 1 5
Result (mod 10) 3 4 7 9 7 2 0 3 7 8 4 2 6 9 6 5 0 7 5 6 2 4
Pairing the
3 4 7 9 7 20 3 7 8 4 26 9 65 0 7 5 62 4
Result's Digits
Ciphertext A O R S R B A R I O J S W E R N / O
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Straddling Checkerboard E T A O N R I S
Decryption 6 P Q / U V W X Y Z .
AORS RBAR IOJS WERN /O

Ciphertext
AOR S R B ARIO J SWERN / O
No. from Stradling
3 4 7 9 7 20 3 7 8 4 26 9 65 0 7 5 62 4
Checkboard
Single digit from

3 4 7 9 7 2 0 3 7 8 4 2 6 9 6 5 0 7 5 6 2 4
Checkboard
Subtract Key (1542) 1 5 4 2 1 5 4 2 1 5 4 2 1 5 4 2 1 5 4 2 1 5
Result (mod 10) 2 9 3 7 6 7 6 1 6 3 0 0 5 4 2 3 9 2 1 4 1 9
Pairing the
29 3 7 67 61 63 0 0 5 4 23 9 21 4 1 9
Result's Digitis
m a r y q u e e n o f s c o t s
Plaintext
mary queen of scots

Dr. Muhammad Zubair Ahmad

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Classical Encryption Techniques

Dr. Muhammad Zubair Ahmad

 The art of protecting information by

 Unauthorized people could not extract any

 As civilizations evolved, human beings

 This led to the emergence of ideas such as

 The roots of cryptography are found in

4000 years earlier

2500 years earlier

1. The type of operations

 If the sender and receiver use different

 A stream cipher processes the input

 If the plaintext is viewed as a sequence of

 plaintext is always in lowercase;

 OR if we assign a numerical equivalent to

 The decryption algorithm is simply

 Simply try all the 25 possible keys.

Sample of unknown or compressed plaintext

it was disclosed yesterday that several informal but

 The Homophonic Substitution cipher is a

 The number of characters each letter is

 The scheme was invented in 1854 by

 where C and P are column vectors of n

mary queen of scots

Single digit from

AORS RBAR IOJS WERN /O

Single digit from

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