Network Layer: Introduction To Networks

Chapter 6:
Network Layer
Introduction to Networks
Presentation_ID © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 1
Chapter 6: Objectives
In this chapter, you will be able to:
 Explain how network layer protocols and services support
communications across data networks.
 Explain how routers enable end-to-end connectivity in a small-to-
medium-sized business network.
 Determine the appropriate device to route traffic in a small-to-
medium-sized business network.
 Configure a router with basic configurations.
Chapter 6
6.1 Network Layer Protocols
6.2 Routing
6.3 Routers
6.4 Configuring a Cisco Router
6.5 Summary
6.1 Network Layer Protocols
Network Layer in Communication
The Network Layer
The network layer, or OSI Layer 3, provides services to allow end devices to
exchange data across the network. To accomplish this end-to-end transport,
the network layer uses four basic processes:
 Addressing end devices
 Encapsulation
 Routing
 De-encapsulating
Network Layer Protocols
Common network layer protocols include:
 IP version 4 (IPv4)
 IP version 6 (IPv6)
Legacy network layer protocols include:
 Novell Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX)
 AppleTalk
 Connectionless Network Service (CLNS/DECNet)
IP Characteristics
IP Components
Characteristics of the IP protocol
IP - Connectionless
Best Effort Delivery
IP – Media Independent
IPv4 Packet
Encapsulating IP
IPv4 Packet
IPv4 Packet Header
Contents of the IPv4 packet header
Limitations of IPv4
 IP Address depletion
 Internet routing table expansion:
Number of servers and routers connected the internet increase, causing a
large routing table consuming a great deal of memory and resources.
 Lack of end-to-end connectivity:
Due to the use of NAT technology which will hide the internal host. This
will cause a problem to end-to-end connectivity technology and
applications.
Introducing IPv6
 Increased address space
 Improved packet handling
 Eliminates the need for NAT
 Integrated security
 4 billion IPv4 addresses
4,000,000,000
 340 undecillion IPv6 addresses
340,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000
IPv6 Packet
Encapsulating IPv6
IPv6 Packet
IPv6 Packet Header
Byte 1 Byte 2 Byte 3 Byte 4
Version Traffic Class Flow Label
Next
Payload Length Hop Limit
Header
Source IP Address
Destination IP Address
6.2 Routing
Host Routing Tables
Host Packet Forwarding Decision
Host Routing Tables
Default Gateway
Hosts must maintain their own, local, routing table to ensure that
network layer packets are directed to the correct destination network.
The local table of the host typically contains:
 Direct connection
 Local network route
R
 Local default route
Host Routing Tables
IPv4 Host Routing Table
Router Routing Tables
Router Packet Forwarding Decision
IPv4 Router Routing Table
192.168.10.0/24 10.1.1.0/24
.10 G0/0 .10
PC1 .1 209.165.200.224 /30
.1
.225 .226
R1 S0/0/0 R2
.10 .1 .1 .10
PC2 G0/1
192.168.11.0/24 10.1.2.0/24
R1#show ip route
Codes: L - local, C - connected, S - static, R - RIP, M - mobile, B - BGP
D - EIGRP, EX - EIGRP external, O - OSPF, IA - OSPF inter area
N1 - OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 - OSPF NSSA external type 2
E1 - OSPF external type 1, E2 - OSPF external type 2, E - EGP
i - IS-IS, L1 - IS-IS level-1, L2 - IS-IS level-2, ia - IS-IS inter area
* - candidate default, U - per-user static route, o - ODR
P - periodic downloaded static route
Gateway of last resort is not set
10.0.0.0/8 is variably subnetted, 2 subnets, 2 masks

D 10.1.1.0/24 [90/2170112] via 209.165.200.226, 00:00:05, Serial0/0/0
D 10.1.2.0/24 [90/2170112] via 209.165.200.226, 00:00:05, Serial0/0/0
C 192.168.10.0/24 is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/0
L 192.168.10.1/32 is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/0
C 209.165.200.224/30 is directly connected, Serial0/0/0
L 209.165.200.225/32 is directly connected, Serial0/0/0
R1#
Directly Connected Routing Table Entries
192.168.10.0/24 64.100.0.1 10.1.1.0/24

.10 G0/0 .10
PC1 .1 209.165.200.224 /30
.1
.225 .226
R1 S0/0/0 R2
.10 .1 .1 .10
PC2 G0/1
192.168.11.0/24 10.1.2.0/24
A B C
A Identifies how the network was learned by the router.

B Identifies the destination network and how it is connected.
C Identifies the interface on the router connected to the destination network.
Remote Network Routing Table Entries
192.168.10.0/24 64.100.0.1 10.1.1.0/24
.10 G0/0 .10
PC1 .1 209.165.200.224 /30
.1
.225 .226
R1 S0/0/0 R2
.1 .1
.10 .10
PC2 G0/1
192.168.11.0/24 10.1.2.0/24
D 10.1.1.0/24 [90/2170112] via 209.165.200.226, 00:00:05, Serial0/0/0
A Identifies how the network was learned by the router.

B Identifies the destination network.
C Identifies the administrative distance (trustworthiness) of the route source.
D Identifies the metric to reach the remote network.
E Identifies the next hop IP address to reach the remote network.
F Identifies the amount of elapsed time since the network was discovered.
G Identifies the outgoing interface on the router to reach the destination network.
Next-Hop Address
192.168.10.0/24 64.100.0.1 10.1.1.0/24
.10 G0/0 .10
PC1 .1
209.165.200.224 /30
.1
.225 .226
R1 S0/0/0 R2
.10 .1 .1 .10
PC2 G0/1
192.168.11.0/24 10.1.2.0/24
R1#show ip route
Codes: L - local, C - connected, S - static, R - RIP, M - mobile, B - BGP
D - EIGRP, EX - EIGRP external, O - OSPF, IA - OSPF inter area
N1 - OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 - OSPF NSSA external type 2
E1 - OSPF external type 1, E2 - OSPF external type 2, E - EGP
i - IS-IS, L1 - IS-IS level-1, L2 - IS-IS level-2, ia - IS-IS inter area
* - candidate default, U - per-user static route, o - ODR
P - periodic downloaded static route
Gateway of last resort is not set

D 10.1.1.0/24 [90/2170112] via 209.165.200.226, 00:00:05, Serial0/0/0
D 10.1.2.0/24 [90/2170112] via 209.165.200.226, 00:00:05, Serial0/0/0
C 209.165.200.224/30 is directly connected, Serial0/0/0
L 209.165.200.225/32 is directly connected, Serial0/0/0
R1#
6.3 Routers
Anatomy of a Router
Router Memory
Volatile /
Memory Stores
Non-Volatile
• Running IOS
• Running configuration file
RAM Volatile
• IP routing and ARP tables
• Packet buffer
• Bootup instructions
ROM Non-Volatile • Basic diagnostic software
• Limited IOS
NVRAM Non-Volatile • Startup configuration file
• IOS
Flash Non-Volatile
• Other system files
Anatomy of a Router
Connecting to a Router
WAN AUX LAN

Interface Port Interfaces
Console
RJ45
Console
USB Type B
Anatomy of a Router
LAN and WAN Interfaces
Serial Interfaces
LAN Interfaces
Router Boot-up
Cisco IOS
The Cisco IOS operational details vary on different internetworking devices,
depending on the device’s purpose and feature set. However, Cisco IOS for
routers provides the following:
 Addressing
 Interfaces
 Routing
 Security
 QoS
 Resources Management
Router Boot-up
Bootset Files
Introduction to Routing
• Store-and-forward packet switching »

• Connectionless service – datagrams »
• Connection-oriented service – virtual circuits »
• Comparison of virtual-circuits and datagrams »
What is Circuit Switching?
 One of the switching technologies used to send messages
from one point to another using a dedicated point-to-point link
throughout the session.
 They are mainly used in PSTN (Public Switched Telephone
Network) where the caller and receiver exchange information
on a dedicated channel using an end-to-end link.
 This is a connection oriented channel which is established
between the sender and the receiver using a dedicated
signaling protocol. When either of them disconnects the call,
the circuit breaks thereby terminating the session
What is Packet Switching?
 Packet switching makes the most out of the network
bandwidth by breaking the message into small units called
data packets which seek the most efficient routing path to
reach its destination.
 Each data packet is assigned a header containing signaling
information including the sender and receiver address, and
then transmitted individually through the network.
 Each data packet may take a different route as addressed by
its associated header.
What is Packet Switching?
 The data is processed at all intermediate nodes located at
various points before reaching its destination where all the
packets are reassembled and recompiled into the original
message.
 It’s a more robust and efficient method to transmit data that
can withstand some delays during the session. It’s mainly
used for data and voice communication.
 Known as Datagram networks
Environment of the network layer protocols
ISP’s equipment
Store-and-Forward Packet Switching
• A host with a packet to send transmits it to the nearest

router, either on its own LAN or over a point-to-point link
to the carrier.
• The packet is stored there until it has fully arrived so the
checksum can be verified. Then it is forwarded to the
next router along the path until it reaches the destination
host, where it is delivered. (store-and-forward packet
switching
Services Provided to the Transport Layer
1. The services should be independent of the router
technology.
2. The transport layer should be shielded from the number,
type, and topology of the routers present.
3. The network addresses made available to the transport
layer should use a uniform numbering plan, even across
LANs and WANs.
Service Types
 connectionless service  packets are injected into the
subnet individually and routed independently of each other.
No advance setup is needed. In this context, the packets are
frequently called datagrams, and the subnet is called a
datagram subnet.
 connection-oriented service  a path from the source

router to the destination router must be established before
any data packets can be sent. This connection is called a VC
(virtual circuit), in analogy with the physical circuits set up
by the telephone system, and the subnet is called a virtual-
circuit subnet.
Connectionless Service – Datagrams
 Packet is forwarded using destination address inside it
Different packets may take different paths
ISP’s equipment
A’s table (initially) A’s table (later) C’s Table E’s Table
Dest. Line
Connection-Oriented – Virtual Circuits
 Packet is forwarded along a virtual circuit using tag inside it
Virtual circuit (VC) is set up ahead of time
ISP’s equipment
A’s table C’s Table E’s Table
In: Line Tag Line Tag: Out
Comparison of Virtual-Circuits & Datagrams
Routing Algorithms
 Routing: making the decision which routes to use.

 Forwarding :what happens when a packet arrives.
 One can think of a router as having two processes inside
it. one of them handles each packet as it arrives, looking
up the outgoing line to use for it in the routing tables. This
process is forwarding. The other process is responsible
for filling in and updating the routing tables. That is where
the routing algorithm comes into play.
Routing Algorithms
• The main function of the network layer is routing packets
from the source machine to the destination machine.
• The routing algorithm is that part of the network layer
software responsible for deciding which output line an
incoming packet should be transmitted on.
• If the subnet uses datagrams internally, routing decision
must be made anew for every arriving data packet since
the best route may have changed since last time.
• If the subnet uses virtual circuits internally, routing
decisions are made only when a new virtual circuit is
being set up. Thereafter, data packets just follow the
previously-established route.
Routing Algorithms Categories:
Properties of desirable routing algorithms
• Correctness: should get packets eventually to the correct destination
• Simplicity: this usually implies faster
• Robustness: should be able to handle new routers coming online, as
well as, handle other going off or malfunctioning
• Stability: under constant conditions should converge to some balane
level .
• Fairness and Optimality: these are hard to satisfy at the same time.
For example, in the situation below it might occur that to optimize flow we
would not allow traffic between X and X´, a situation which is not fair.
Dynamic Routing Principles:
Optimality principle »
Shortest path algorithm »
Flooding »
Distance vector routing »
Link state routing »
Hierarchical routing »
Broadcast routing »
Multicast routing »
Anycast routing »
Routing for mobile hosts »
Routing in ad hoc networks »
Network Layer
Summary
In this chapter, you learned:
 The network layer, or OSI Layer 3, provides services to allow end devices
to exchange data across the network.
 The network layer uses four basic processes: IP addressing for end
devices, encapsulation, routing, and de-encapsulation.
 The Internet is largely based on IPv4, which is still the most widely-used
network layer protocol.
 An IPv4 packet contains the IP header and the payload.
 The IPv6 simplified header offers several advantages over IPv4, including
better routing efficiency, simplified extension headers, and capability for
per-flow processing.
Network Layer
Summary (cont.)
 In addition to hierarchical addressing, the network layer is also
responsible for routing.
 Hosts require a local routing table to ensure that packets are directed to
the correct destination network.
 The local default route is the route to the default gateway.
 The default gateway is the IP address of a router interface connected to
the local network.
 When a router, such as the default gateway, receives a packet, it
examines the destination IP address to determine the destination
network.
Network Layer
Summary (cont.)
 The routing table of a router stores information about directly-connected
routes and remote routes to IP networks. If the router has an entry in its
routing table for the destination network, the router forwards the packet. If
no routing entry exists, the router may forward the packet to its own
default route, if one is configured or it will drop the packet.
 Routing table entries can be configured manually on each router to
provide static routing or the routers may communicate route information
dynamically between each other using a routing protocol.
 For routers to be reachable, the router interface must be configured.

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Chapter 6:

Version Traffic Class Flow Label

Gateway of last resort is not set

10.0.0.0/8 is variably subnetted, 2 subnets, 2 masks

192.168.10.0/24 64.100.0.1 10.1.1.0/24

A Identifies how the network was learned by the router.

D 10.1.1.0/24 [90/2170112] via 209.165.200.226, 00:00:05, Serial0/0/0

A Identifies how the network was learned by the router.

Gateway of last resort is not set

10.0.0.0/8 is variably subnetted, 2 subnets, 2 masks

NVRAM Non-Volatile • Startup configuration file

WAN AUX LAN

• Store-and-forward packet switching »

• A host with a packet to send transmits it to the nearest

 connection-oriented service  a path from the source

A’s table C’s Table E’s Table

In: Line Tag Line Tag: Out

 Routing: making the decision which routes to use.

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