The Human Body

An Orientation
 Anatomy
 science of structure
 relationships revealed by dissection (cutting apart)
 imaging techniques
 Physiology
 science of body functions
 normal adult physiology is studied in this class
 some genetic variations occur
 Anatomy
 the study of structure and the relationships among
structures.
 Subdivisions
 surface anatomy, gross anatomy, systemic
anatomy, regional anatomy, radiographic anatomy,
developmental anatomy, embryology, cytology,
and pathological anatomy
 surface anatomy - study of the form (morphology) and
markings of the surface of the body.
 gross anatomy - AKA macroscopic anatomy
- Study of structures that can be studies without
the use of a microscope
 systemic anatomy - AKA systematic anatomy
- Study of specific systems of the body such as the
nervous system or the respiratory system
 regional anatomy - Study of a specific region such as
the chest or head
- Can include several different systems
 radiographic anatomy - Study of the structure of the
body that includes the use of x-
rays
 developmental anatomy - Study of development from the
fertilized egg to adult form
 embryology - Study of development from the fertilized
egg through the 8th week
 cytology - Microscopic study of the structure of cells
 pathological anatomy - Study of structural changes
associated with disease
 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
DEFINED
 Physiology
 the study of how body structures function
 Subdivisions of physiology include
 cell physiology, systems physiology,
pathophysiology, exercise physiology,
neurophysiology, endocrinology, cardiovascular
physiology, immunophysiology, respiratory
physiology, renal physiology, and reproductive
physiology
 Cell Physiology - the biological study of the cell's
mechanism and interaction in its environment
 Pathophysiology - the disordered physiological
processes associated with disease or injury
 Exercise Physiology - the identification of physiological
mechanisms underlying physical activity
 Neurophysiology - the study of the workings of the
nervous system
 Endocrinology - the study of endocrine gland and
hormones
 Cardiovascular physiology - the study of the operation
of the heart and blood vessels
 Immunophysiology - the study of immunity
 Respiratory Physiology - the study of respiration or the
organs of respiration
 Renal Physiology - the study of the kidney and its
functions
 Structural Organization of Matter
1. Chemical Level
a. Atoms
(Proton, Neutron, electrons)
b. Molecules
(Two or more atoms joined
together by either covalent or
ionic bonds)
Four biologically important
organic molecules in the
human body
a. Proteins which are made
from 20 different Amino
Acids
 Structural Organization of Matter
Four Biologically-Important
Organic molecules:
b. Complex Carbohydrates
made from simple sugars
c. Nucleic Acids made for
nucleotides
d. Lipids made from fatty
acids and glycerol
2. Cells
(Smallest structural and
functional units of the human
body)
 Structural Organization of Matter
3. Tissues
(group of cells and the
materials surrounding them
that work together to
perform a particular
function)
4. Organs
(composed of two or more
tissues work together to
provide specific functions and
they usually have specific
shapes)
 Structural Organization of Matter
5. Organ systems
(consist of one or more
organs that provide a
common function)
 Basic Life Processes

1. Metabolism
Sum of all biochemical
processes of cells, tissues,
organs, and organ systems
2. Responsiveness
Ability to detect and respond to
changes in the internal and
external environment
3. Movement
Occurs at the intracellular,
cellular, organ levels
 Basic Life Processes

4. Growth
Increase in number of cells, size of cells,
tissues, organs, and the body. Single cell
to multicellular complex organism
5. Differentiation
Process a cell undergoes to develop from a
unspecialized to a specialized cell
6. Reproduction
Formation of new cells for growth, repair,
or replacement, or the production of a
new individual.
 Basic Life Processes

 Homeostasis
Equilibrium of the body’s internal
environment produced by the
interaction of organ systems and
regulatory processes (feedback
systems).
Homeostasis is a dynamic condition in
response to changing conditions.
The two body systems that largely
control the body’s homeostatic state:
1. Nervous system
2. Endocrine system
 Control of Homeostasis

 Homeostasis is continually being disrupted by

 external stimuli
 intense heat, cold , and lack of oxygen
 internal stimuli
 psychological stresses
 exercise
 Disruptions are usually mild & temporary
 If homeostasis is not maintained, death may result
Homeostatic Control System

 Receptor
 monitors a controlled condition
 detects the change
 Control center
 determines next action or
appropriate response
 Effector
 receives directions from the control
center
 produces a response that changes the
controlled condition
Homeostatic Control Mechanisms

• Negative feedback mechanisms

- change the variable back to its original state or
“ideal value”.
- occurs when the rate of the process decreases as
the concentration of the product increases.
ex. control of blood sugar (glucose) by
insulin

•Positive feedback mechanisms

- the output enhances the original stimulus.
- occurs when the rate of a process increases as
the concentration of the product increases.
ex. child birth. 
 Homeostatic Imbalances

 Disruption of homeostasis can lead to disease and death.

 Disorder is a general term for any change or abnormality of

function.
 Disease is a more specific term for an illness characterized
by a recognizable set of signs and symptoms.
 A local disease is one that affects one part or a limited
region of the body.
 A systemic disease affects either the entire body or
several parts.
 Homeostatic Imbalances

 Disease is a more specific term for an illness characterized

by a recognizable set of signs and symptoms.
 Signs are objective changes that a clinician can observe
and measure; e.g., fever or rash.
 Symptoms are subjective changes in body functions that
are not apparent to an observer; e.g., headache or nausea.
 Diagnosis is the art of distinguishing one disease from
another or determining the nature of a disease; a diagnosis is
generally arrived at after the taking of a medical history and
the administration of a physical examination.
 Overview of Organ Systems
Organ systems communicate, integrate, support and move,
maintain and regulate, defend, reproduce the body.
 Communicate outside environment changes:
-Three organ systems detect external stimuli
and coordinate the body’s responses
- Nervous, sensory and endocrine systems
 Support and movement:
-The musculoskeletal system consists of two interrelated
organ systems
 Regulation and maintenance:
-Four organ systems regulate and maintain the body’s
chemistry; called HOMEOSTASIS.
Digestive, circulatory, respiratory and excretory systems.

 Defense:
-The body defends itself with two organ systems:
Integumentary and immune.

 Reproduction and development

-The Reproductive system.

41
 The 11 Human Body Systems

The 11 human body systems are as follows:

-- nervous system -- integumentary system
-- respiratory system -- digestive system
-- excretory system -- skeletal system
-- muscular system -- circulatory system
-- endocrine system -- reproductive system
-- lymphatic (immune) system
 The Integumentary System

 Forms external body covering

 Protects deeper tissues from
injury
 Synthesizes vitamin D
 Site of cutaneous receptors
 (pain, pressure, etc.) and sweat
and oil glands
 The Skeletal System

 Protects and supports

body organs
 Provides a
framework for
muscles
 Blood cells formed
within bones
 Stores minerals
 The Muscular System

 Allows manipulation of
environment
 Locomotion
 Facial expression
 Maintains posture
 Produces heat
 The Nervous System

 Fast-acting control system

 Responds to internal and
external changes
 The Endocrine System

 Glands secrete hormones

that regulate
 Growth
 Reproduction
 Nutrient use
 The Cardiovascular System

 Blood vessels transport blood

 Carries oxygen and carbon
dioxide
 Also carries nutrients and
wastes
 Heart pumps blood through
blood vessels

Figure 1-2(f)
 The Lymphatic System

 Picks up fluid leaked from

blood vessels
 Disposes of debris in the
lymphatic system
 Houses white blood cells
(lymphocytes)
 Mounts attack against foreign
substances in the body
 The Respiratory System

 Keeps blood supplied with

oxygen
 Removes carbon dioxide
 Gas exchange occurs through
walls of air sacs in the lungs
 The Digestive System

 Breaks down food into

absorbable units
 Indigestible foodstuffs
eliminated as feces
 The Urinary System

 Eliminates nitrogenous wastes

 Regulates water, electrolyte,
and acid-base balance
 Reproductive System
 Overall function is to produce offspring
 Testes produce sperm and male sex hormones
 Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones
 Mammary glands produce milk

Figure 1-2(l)
Gross Anatomy
 Anatomical position – a common visual reference point
 Person stands erect with feet together and eyes forward
 Palms face anteriorly with the thumbs pointed away from the
body

Figure 1.3
 Regional terms – names of specific body areas
 Axial region – the main axis of the body
 Appendicular region – the limbs

Figure 1.3
Orientation and Directional Terms

Table 1.1 (1 of 3)
Orientation and Directional Terms

Table 1.1 (2 of 3)
Orientation and Directional Terms

Table 1.1 (3 of 3)
Regional Terms

Figure 1.4a
Regional Terms

Figure 1.4b
 Body Planes and Sections
 Coronal (frontal) plane - Lies vertically and divides body into anterior
and posterior parts
 Median (midsagittal) plane - Specific sagittal plane that lies vertically
in the midline
 Body Planes and Sections
 Transverse plane - runs horizontally and divides body into
superior and inferior parts

Figure 1.5
 Body Planes and Sections
 Oblique section through the trunk

Figure 1.6
 Body Cavities and Membranes
 Dorsal body cavity
 Cavity subdivided
into the cranial
cavity and the
vertebral cavity.
 Cranial cavity
houses the brain.
 Vertebral cavity
runs through the
vertebral column
and encloses the
spinal cord
 Body Cavities and Membranes
 Ventral body cavity –
subdivided into:
 Thoracic cavity –
divided into three
parts
 Two lateral parts
each containing a
lung surrounded by a
pleural cavity
 Mediastinum –
contains the heart
surrounded by the
pericardial sac
 Body Cavities and Membranes
 Ventral body cavity
 Abdominopelvic
cavity – divided into
two parts
 Abdominal cavity –
contains the liver,
stomach, kidneys,
and other organs
 Pelvic cavity –
contains the bladder,
some reproductive
organs, and rectum
 Body Cavities and Membranes
 Serous cavities – a slit-like space lined by a serous
membrane
 Pleura, pericardium, and peritoneum
 Parietal serosa – outer wall of the cavity
 Visceral serosa covers the visceral organs
Body Cavities and Membranes
 Other Body Cavities
 Oral cavity
 Nasal cavity
 Orbital cavities
 Middle ear cavities
 Synovial cavities
 Abdominal Regions and Quadrants
 Abdominal regions divide the abdomen into nine regions
 Abdominal Quadrants
 Abdominal quadrants divide the abdomen into four quadrants
 Right upper and left upper quadrants
 Right lower and left lower quadrants