Respiratory

System
Prepared by:
Prof. Elizabeth D. Cruz RN,
MAN
 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
• The respiratory system helps us in what we commonly call breathing but is more
appropriately termed respiration.
• Consists of the respiratory and conducting zones
 Respiratory zone
 Site of gas exchange
 Consists of bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli
 Conducting zone
 Includes all other respiratory structures (e.g., nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea)
 Respiratory muscles – diaphragm and other muscles that promote ventilation
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
 MAJOR FUNCTION OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
• To supply the body with oxygen and dispose of carbon dioxide
Respiration – four distinct processes must happen

1. Pulmonary Ventilation - the movement of air into and out of the lungs;
2. External Respiration - gas exchange between the air in the lungs and the blood
3. Transport - the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood
4. Internal Respiration - gas exchange between the blood vessels and the tissues
 Exchange of gasses
Oversees gas
takes place within
exchanges (oxygen
the lungs in the
and carbon dioxide)
alveoli (only site of
between the blood
gas exchange, other
and external
FUNCTION OF environment
structures
passageways)

THE
RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM Passageways to the
lungs purify, warm,
Shares
responsibility with
and humidify the cardiovascular
incoming air system
 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
• The respiratory system consists of the external nose, the nasal cavity, the pharynx, the larynx, the trachea, the
bronchi, and the lungs
• The diaphragm and the muscles of the thoracic and abdominal walls are responsible for respiratory
movements. (Although air frequently passes through it, the oral cavity is considered part of the digestive
system rather than the respiratory system.)
• There are two ways of classifying the parts of the respiratory system: (1) structurally and
(2) functionally.
• Structurally, the respiratory system is divided into the upper respiratory tract and the
lower respiratory tract.
 The upper respiratory tract includes the external nose, the nasal cavity, the pharynx with
its associated structures, and the larynx;
 The lower respiratory tract includes the trachea, the bronchi and smaller bronchioles, and
the lungs.
 UPPER
RESPIRATORY
TRACT
 NOSE
•The nose consists of the external nose and the nasal cavity.
•The external nose is the visible structure that forms a prominent feature of the face.
•The largest part of the external nose is composed of hyaline cartilage plates.
• The bridge of the nose consists of the nasal bones plus extensions of the frontal
and maxillary bones.
1. External portion
a. mainly cartilage attached to nasal bones
b. External nares (nostrils)
c. Vestibules - just inside external nares (put your finger)
2. Internal portion
a. Internal nares - connects nose to pharynx
b. Nasal septum - divides nasal cavity in two
c. Paranasal sinuses - cavities formed by cranium
i. frontal, sphenoidal, maxillary, ethmoidal
d. Meatuses - passageways formed by conchae
i. superior, middle, inferior
e. Olfactory region - above superior concha
 FUNCTION OF THE NOSE
The only externally visible part of the respiratory system that
functions by:
 Providing an airway for respiration
 Moistening and warming the entering air
 Filtering inspired air and cleaning it of foreign matter
 Housing the olfactory receptors
 NASAL CAVITY
•Nasal cavity extends from the nares to the choanae.
• The nares or nostrils, are the external openings of the nasal cavity
•Choanae are the openings into the pharynx.
•Vestibule is the anterior part of the nasal cavity just inside each naris
•The vestibule is lined with stratified squamous epithelium, which is continuous with the stratified
squamous epithelium of the skin.
·Olfactory receptors are located in the mucosa on the superior surface
·The rest of the cavity is lined with respiratory mucosa
·Moistens air
·Traps incoming foreign particles
·Lateral walls have projections called conchae
·Increases surface area
·Increases air turbulence within the nasal cavity
 NASAL CAVITY
·The nasal cavity is separated from the oral cavity by
the palate

·Anterior hard palate (bone) is formed by the palatine

process of the maxillae and the palatine bone
·Posterior soft palate (muscle)
 Two types of mucous membrane
Olfactory mucosa
Near roof of nasal cavity
Houses olfactory (smell) receptors
Respiratory mucosa
Lines nasal cavity
Epithelium is pseudostratified ciliated columnar
 FUNCTIONS OF NASAL CAVITY
1. Serves as a passageway for air. The nasal cavity remains open even when the mouth is full of food.

2. Cleans the air. The vestibule is lined with hairs, which trap some of the large particles of dust in the air.
3. Humidifies and warms the air. Moisture from the mucous epithelium and from excess tears that drain into
the nasal cavity through the nasolacrimal duct is added to the air as it passes through the nasal cavity. Warm
blood flowing through the mucous membrane warms the air within the nasal cavity.
4. Contains the olfactory epithelium. The olfactory epithelium, the sensory organ for smell, is located in the
most superior part of the nasal cavity
5. Helps determine voice sound. The nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses are resonating chambers for speech.
NASAL CAVITY
 PARANASAL
SINUSES
• The nasal cavity is surrounded by a ring of
paranasal sinuses located in the frontal,
sphenoid, ethmoid, and maxillary bones
• FUNCTIONS OF SINUSES
1. Sinuses lighten the skull, and
2. They act as a resonance chamber for
speech
3. Produce mucus that drains into the nasal
cavity
 PHARYNX
• Is a funnel-shaped that connects the nasal
• Commonly called as Throat
• It receives air from the nasal cavity and receives air, food, and drink from
the oral cavity.
• Is connected to the respiratory system at the larynx and to the digestive
system at the esophagus.
• The muscular pharynx wall is composed of skeletal muscle throughout its
length.
• The cellular composition of its mucosa varies from one pharyngeal
region to another
• The pharynx is divided into 3 regions:
1. Nasopharynx is located posterior to the choanae and
superior to the soft palate, which is an incomplete
muscle and connective tissue partition separating the
nasopharynx from the oropharynx.
 Superior to the point where food enters
 Only an air passageway
 Closed off during swallowing
 Pharyngeal tonsil (adenoids)
 Located on posterior wall
 Destroys entering pathogens
 Contains the opening to the pharyngotympanic tube
(auditory tube)
 Tubal tonsil
 Provides some protection from infection
2.Oropharynx extends from the soft palate to the epiglottis.
Thus, air, food, and drink all pass through the oropharynx.
 Arch-like entranceway – fauces
Extends from soft palate to the epiglottis
 Epithelium
Stratified squamous epithelium
 Two types of tonsils in the oropharynx
Palatine tonsils – in the lateral walls of the fauces
Lingual tonsils – covers the posterior surface of the
tongue
3.Laryngopharynx extends from the tip of the epiglottis to
the esophagus and passes posterior to the larynx. Food and
drink pass through the laryngophrynx to the esophagus
 Passageway for both food and air
 Continuous with the esophagus and larynx
 LARYNX/VOICE BOX
• Is located in the anterior part of the throat and extends from the base of the tongue to
the trachea
• It is a passageway for air between the pharynx and the trachea.
• The framework of the larynx is an intricate arrangement of nine cartilages connected
by membranes and ligaments
• 3 Functions are:
1. To provide a patent (open) airway
2. To act as a switching mechanism to route air and food into the proper channels.
3. The third function of the larynx is voice production.
 CARTILAGES
1. Thyroid cartilage
• Also Called as Adam’s apple
• Is unpaired largest cartilage and a shield-shape
• Attached superiorly to the hyoid bone
2. Cricoid cartilage
• Is a ring shape and most inferior unpaired cartilage
• Forms the base of the larynx on which the other cartilages rest
• Maintain an open passageway for air movement
3. Epiglottis
• Unpaired cartilage, flexible, spoon shaped
• Attached to the thyroid cartilage anteriorly and superior part of the
epiglottis projects as a free flap toward the tongue
• Helps prevent swallowed materials from entering the larynx
4. Cuneiform cartilage
• Is on the top cartilage on each side
• Is a wedge-shaped paired cartilage
5. Corniculate cartilage
• Is the middle-paired cartilage
• Is a horn shaped cartilage
6. Arytenoid cartilage
• Is the bottom cartilage
• Is ladle shaped cartilage
• The paired cartilages form an attachment
site for the vocal folds
 LARYNX CARTILAGES
Vocal ligaments of the larynx
7. Vestibular folds or false vocal cords
• No role in sound production
8. Vocal Folds/ True Vocal Cords - Part of the mucous membrane
of the larynx forms a pair of folds, which vibrate with expelled air
and allows us to speak
• Act in sound production
• vibrate to produce different frequencies
9. Glottis
• The slit like passageway between the vocal folds (cords) for
sound
 Epithelium of the larynx
 Stratified squamous – superior portion
 Pseudostratified ciliated columnar – inferior portion
 VOICE
PRODUCTION
 Voice production
 Length of the vocal folds changes with pitch
 Loudness depends on the force of air across
the vocal folds
 Sphincter function of the larynx
 Valsalva’s maneuver – straining
 Innervation of the larynx
 Recurrent laryngeal nerves (branch of vagus)
 Vocal Cords (true cords)
• vibrate to produce different frequencies
 Pharynx, Mouth, Sinuses, Nose, Tongue, Lips
• alter the sound
 TRACHEA
• is a membranous tube attached to the larynx
• Commonly called as windpipe
• It is 10–12 cm (about 4 inches) long and 2 cm (3/4 inch) in
diameter, and very flexible and mobile
• Tracheal wall consists of several layers that are common to
many tubular body organs—the mucosa, submucosa, and
adventitia—plus a layer of hyaline cartilage.
• It consists of dense regular connective tissue and smooth
muscle reinforced with 15–20 C-shaped pieces of hyaline
cartilage.
•  Lined with ciliated mucosa
·Beat continuously in the opposite direction of
incoming air
·Expel mucus loaded with dust and other debris away
from lungs
 TRACHEA
• Mucosa – made up of goblet cells and ciliated
epithelium
• Submucosa – connective tissue deep to the mucosa
contains seromucous glands that help produce the
mucus “sheets” within the trachea
• Adventitia – outermost layer made of C-shaped rings
of hyaline cartilage
• Carina - The last tracheal cartilage is expanded, and a
spar of cartilage,
• Projects posteriorly from its inner face, marking the
point where the trachea branches into the two main
bronchi.
• The mucosa of the carina is highly sensitive and
violent coughing is triggered when a foreign object
makes contact with it.
 BRONCHI
• The trachea divides to form two smaller tubes called main bronchi, or primary bronchi, each
of which extends to a lung
• Formed by division of the trachea
• Enters the lung at the hilus (medial depression)
• Right bronchus is wider, shorter, and straighter than left
• Bronchi subdivide into smaller and smaller branches
• Bronchial tree is the site where conducting zone structures give way to respiratory zone
structures
 BRONCHI IN CONDUCTING ZONE
 Secondary (lobar) bronchi
 Three on the right
 Two on the left
 Tertiary (segmental) bronchi
 Branch into each lung segment
 Cartilage decreases, smooth muscle increases
 Bronchioles
 Little bronchi, less than 1 mm in diameter
 Terminal bronchioles
 Less than 0.5 mm in diameter
 the tiniest of Bronchioles
 Smooth muscle in wall controlled by ANS

• Sympathetic causes bronchodilation

• Parasympathetic causes bronchoconstriction

• Excess bronchoconstriction is asthma

 CHANGES IN TISSUE COMPOSITION ALONG
CONDUCTING PATHWAYS
 Supportive connective tissues change
• C-shaped rings replaced by cartilage plates
• by the time the bronchioles are reached, supportive cartilage is no longer present in the tube walls.
 Epithelium changes
• epithelium thins as it changes from pseudostratified columnar to columnar
• Replaced by simple columnar, then simple cuboidal epithelium
 Smooth muscle becomes important
• the tube walls increases as the passageway become smaller.
• A complete layer of circular smooth muscle in the bronchioles and the lack of supporting cartilage
(which would hinder constriction) allows the bronchioles to provide substantial resistant to airway
passages
 STRUCTURES OF THE RESPIRATORY ZONE
 Consists of air-exchanging structures
 Respiratory bronchioles – branch from
terminal bronchioles feed into respiratory
bronchioles
 Respiratory bronchioles lead to alveolar
ducts, then to terminal clusters of alveolar
sacs composed of alveoli
 Approximately 300 million alveoli:
 Account for most of the lungs’
volume
 Provide tremendous surface area for
gas exchange
 RESPIRATORY MEMBRANE
 Alveoli consist of
 Type I cells and basal laminae
 Scattered among type I cells
 Cuboidal epithelial cells – type II cells
 Secrete surfactant
• The alveoli have three other significant features:
1. They are surrounded by fine elastic fibers of the same
type that surround the entire bronchial tree.
2. Open alveolar pores connecting adjacent alveoli allow
air pressure throughout the lung to be equalized and provide
alternate air routes to any alveoli whose bronchi have
collapsed due to disease.
3. Remarkably efficient alveolar macrophages crawl
freely along the internal alveolar surfaces.
 LUNGS
•Lungs comprise five lobes
• Separated by deep fissures
•three lobes on right, two on left
•Apex extends above first rib
•Base rests on diaphragm
•Covered by a serous visceral pleura
•Lie with pleural cavities
•Lined by a serous parietal pleura
 Cardiac notch (impression) – cavity that accommodates
the heart
 Left lung – separated into upper and lower lobes by the
oblique fissure
 Right lung – separated into three lobes (superior,
middle, inferior) by the oblique and horizontal fissures
 PLEURAL CAVITIES
Thin, double-layered serosa:
Parietal pleura
 Covers the thoracic wall and
superior face of the diaphragm
 Continues around heart and
between lungs
Visceral pleura
 Covers the external lung surface
 Divides the thoracic cavity into
three chambers
 The central mediastinum
 Two lateral compartments,
each containing a lung
 RESPIRATORY PHYSIOLOGY
• Three Integrated Processes
1. Pulmonary ventilation—Moving air into and out of the respiratory tract;
breathing
2. Gas exchange —Diffusion between alveoli and circulating blood, and
between blood and interstitial fluids
3. Gas transport—Movement of oxygen from alveoli to cells, and carbon
dioxide from cells to alveoli
 RESPIRATORY PHYSIOLOGY
• Respiratory cycle—A single breath consisting of inspiration (inhalation) and
expiration (exhalation)
• Respiratory rate—Number of cycles per minute
-Adult normal rate 12 to 18 breaths/minute
- Child normal rate 18 to 20 breaths/minute
• Alveolar ventilation—Movement of air into and out of the alveoli
• Note: The direction of air flow is determined by the relationship of atmospheric
pressure and pressure inside the respiratory tract. Flow is always from higher to lower
pressure.
 RESPIRATORY PHYSIOLOGY

Quiet versus Forced Breathing

• Quiet breathing—Diaphragm and external intercostals are involved. Expiration
is passive.
• Forced breathing—Accessory muscles become active during the entire
breathing cycle. Expiration is active.
 VENTILATION AND LUNG VOLUMES

VENTILLATION or breathing
• Is the process of moving air into and out of the lungs
2 Phases of Ventilation:
1. Inspiration or inhalation – movement of air into the lungs
2. Expiration or exhalation – movement of air out of the lungs
The movement of air in and out of the lung is a result of differences in pressure, which is
brought about by the changes in the volume of the thorax.
For example, if air is to enter the lungs the pressure inside them must be lower that the
atmospheric pressure.
MECHANISM OF INSPIRATION
(INHALATION)
ROLE OF PLEURAL MEMBRANE
MECHANISM OF EXPIRATION
(EXHALATION)
 CHANGES IN
INTRAPULMONARY
AND
INTRAPLEURAL
PRESSURE DURING
INSPIRATION AND
EXPIRATION
 PULMONARY VOLUMES AND CAPACITIES
RESPIRATORY CAPACITIES
• Specific combinations of these respiratory volumes
• Are measured to gain information about a person’s respiratory status.
• The four respiratory volumes are:
(1) Tidal volume, (2)inspiratory reserve volume, (3)expiratory reserve volume, and
(4)residual volume.
 During normal quiet breathing, about 500 ml of air moves into and then out of the
lungs with each breath.
RESPIRATORY VOLUMES AND CAPACITIES
 PULMONARY FUNCTION TEST
SPIROMETER
• a simple but cumbersome instrument utilizing a hollow
bell inverted over water.
• Patients simply blow into a small electronic measuring
device.
• Is most useful for evaluating losses in respiratory function
and for following the course of certain respiratory
diseases.
• It can distinguish between obstructive pulmonary disease
involving increased
airway resistance (such as chronic bronchitis) and restrictive
disorders involving a reduction in total lung capacity
resulting from structural or functional changes in the lungs.
 MINUTE VENTILATION AND ALVEOLAR
VENTILATION
• Minute ventilation is the total amount of air moved in and out of the
respiratory system per minute.
• Dead space is the part of the respiratory system where gas exchange
does not take place.
• Alveolar ventilation is how much air per minute enters the parts of the
respiratory system where gas exchange takes place.
 GAS EXCHANGE
Gas Exchange
• External respiration—Diffusion of
gases between alveolar air and
pulmonary capillary blood across the
respiratory membrane
• Internal respiration—Diffusion of
gases between blood and interstitial
fluids across the capillary
endothelium
Two Gas Laws are:
1.Dalton’s law of partial pressures
•reveals how a gas behaves when it is part of a mixture of gases
is the sum of the pressures exerted independently by each gas
in the mixture.
•Partial pressure—is the pressure exerted by each gas directly
proportional to the percentage of that gas in the gas mixture.
2. Henry’s law
•help us understand movement of gases into and out of solution.
•when a gas is in contact with a liquid, that gas will dissolve in
the liquid in proportion to its partial pressure.
• the greater the concentration of a particular gas in the gas
phase, the more and the faster that gas will go into solution in
the liquid.
GAS EXCHANGE IN TISSUES
GAS EXCHANGE IN THE LUNGS
 OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE TRANSPORT
IN THE BLOOD
Gas Transport
• Arterial blood entering peripheral capillaries delivers oxygen and removes carbon dioxide
• Gas reactions with blood are completely reversible
• In general, a small change in plasma PO2 causes a large change in how
much oxygen is bound to hemoglobin
NOTE: Hemoglobin binds most of the oxygen in the bloodstream. If the PO2 in plasma
increases, hemoglobin binds more oxygen; if PO2 decreases, hemoglobin releases oxygen.
At a given PO2 hemoglobin will release additional oxygen if the pH falls or the
temperature rises.
 Carbon Dioxide Transport in the Blood
• Aerobic metabolism produces CO2
• 7% travels dissolved in plasma
• 23% travels bound to hemoglobin

-Called carbaminohemoglobin
• 70% is converted to H2CO3 in RBCs

- Catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase

-Dissociates to H+ and HCO3-
-HCO3- enters plasma from RBC
Note:Carbon dioxide (CO2) primarily travels in
the bloodstream as bicarbonate ions (HCO3-), which form
through dissociation of the carbonic acid (H2CO3) produced
by carbonic anhydrase inside RBCs. Lesser amounts of CO2
are bound to hemoglobin or dissolved in plasma.
 MODIFICATION OF VENTILATION
Local Control of Respiration

• Arterioles supplying pulmonary capillaries

constrict when oxygen is low

• Bronchioles dilate when carbon dioxide is high

Control by Brain Respiratory Centers

• Respiratory centers in brainstem

• Three pairs of nuclei

-Two pairs in pons

- One pair in medulla oblongata

• Control respiratory muscles

• Set rate and depth of ventilation

• Respiratory rhythmicity center in medulla

- Sets basic rhythm of breathing

 REFLEX CONTROL OF RESPIRATION

• Inflation reflex
• Protects lungs from overexpansion

• Deflation reflex
• Stimulates inspiration when lungs collapse

• Chemoreceptor reflexes
• Respond to changes in pH, PO2, and PCO2 in blood and CSF
 CONTROL OF HIGHER CENTERS
• Exert effects on pons or on respiratory motor neurons

• Voluntary actions
- Speech, singing

• Involuntary actions through the limbic system

- Rage, eating, sexual arousal
Note: Interplay between respiratory centers in the pons and
medulla oblongata sets the basic pace of breathing, as modified by
input from chemoreceptors, baroreceptors, and stretch receptors.
CO2 level, rather than O2 level, is the main driver for breathing.
Protective reflexes can interrupt breathing and conscious control
of respiratory muscles can act as well.
 RESPIRATORY CHANGES AT BIRTH
Conditions Before Birth
• Pulmonary arterial resistance is high
• Rib cage is compressed
• Lungs are collapsed
• Airways, alveoli are filled with fluid
Conditions After Birth
• A heroic breath fills lungs with air, displaces fluid, and opens alveoli
• Surfactant stabilizes open alveoli
 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM AND AGING
Respiratory System Loses Efficiency
• Elastic tissue deteriorates
- Lowers vital capacity
• Rib cage movement restricted
- Arthritic changes
- Costal cartilages loses flexibility
• Some emphysema usually appears
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM IN PERSPECTIVE
Thank You!