Chapter 2 (PART A) 17

Chapter 2 (PART A)
Lift Characteristics of the Airplane
12/02/20 Chapter 2 - PART A (Lift Characteristics) 1

Aerodynamic Force
• Aerodynamics and propulsion play a vital role in airplane
performance. So we will first review these topics before we
do any airplane performance
• We’ll discuss lift and drag of various components of the
airplane, as well as the overall lift and drag of the complete
vehicle
• Generally, it is not too difficult to generate a large lift, but it
is difficult to obtain low drag. Our objective will therefore
be to generate whatever lift is required but with as low a
drag as possible.
Aerodynamic Force
• When an object is immersed in moving air, it experiences an
aerodynamic force R (say)
• The source of this aerodynamic force is

– Pressure distribution exerted on the surface of the object given as: p = p (s)
– Shear stress distribution given as:
 =  (s)

Lift, Drag, and Pitching Moment
•
•The component of R perpendicular to the free
stream velocity , is called the Lift L, and the
component parallel to it is called the drag D. (See
Fig 2.3)
•The moment of R aboutVthe quarter-chord point is

denoted by Mc/4 , and about the leading edge (LE)
by MLE (Fig 2.4)
•Now L and D are both distributed loads. For

analysis, we usually replace them with equivalent
point loads acting at the centroid of the distributed
loads. This point is called the center of pressure
(c.p). See Fig 2.5 on the next page

Center of Pressure
• Since R acts through the c.p., its moment •
about the c.p. is zero. Hence an alternate
definition of the c.p. is that point about
which the pitching moment is zero
• Now any point load can be shifted to any
other point, but an additional moment of
the load about that point must be added
• So if L and D are moved away from the
c.p. to another point, such as the quarter-
chord point, then the additional moment
would be Mc/4 (Fig 2.5c)
• Another point to shift L and D to, would
be the leading edge and the additional
moment in this case would be MLE (Fig
2.5d)
• In summary then, all four sketches in Fig
2.5 are equivalent and we can use any
one that is convenient for us
Study solved example 2.1 on page 56

Aerodynamic Coefficients
• Typically L, D, and M depend on the • Then, to study the effect of some other
following flow parameters flow parameter such as   , we would
have to repeat the tests by varying   but
  , V  , S , ,   , a 
hold all other parameters constant. And so
• on, with all other parameters.
This functional dependence is written as
• Clearly, this is too much work. However,
L  L(  ,V , S , ,   , a  ) [2.2 a] this effort can be reduced considerably by
D  D (  ,V , S , ,   , a  ) [2.2 b] introducing what we call aerodynamic
M  M (  ,V , S , ,   , a  ) [2.2 c] coefficients which are simply the non-
dimensional forms of L, D, and M
• To study the effect of these flow
parameters on L, D, and M, many wind • This is easily achieved using the concepts
tunnel tests would have to be made. For of dimensional analysis
example, to study the effect of V on L ,
we would have to run a series of
experiments by varying V and keeping all
other parameters constant.

Aerodynamic Coefficients
Recall these definitions: • Mach Number:
L
• Lift coefficient: CL  [2.3]
q S V [2.8]
M 
D a
• Drag coefficient: CD  [2.4]
q S where the free stream speed of sound is
M a   RT
• Moment coefficient: C M  q Sc [2.5] • Using dimensional analysis, it can be

1 shown that the aerodynamic coefficients

Dynamic pressure:  2 V
 2
• q [2.6] have the following functional dependence
• c is the characteristic length of the object. C L  C L (, Re, M  ) [2.9a]

For airfoils, c is the chord length. C D  C d (, Re, M  ) [2.9b]
• S is any reference area. For airfoils, it is
the planform area of the wing C M  C M (, Re, M  ) [2.9c]
• Reynolds number: • So now we’ve reduced the number of
 V c dependent parameters (  ,V , S , ,from
  , a )
Re  [2.7]
 six to only three namely (, Re, M  )

Similarity
• Graphs or tables of CL, CD, and CM, • This is a very powerful conclusion since
are known as aerodynamic data small scale models can be used to
determine L, D, and M for a full scale
• The non-dimensional coefficients CL,
airplane.
CD, and CM, are very useful
Study solved example 2.2/pg 60, and
quantities for airplane design work
Read the “Design Cameo” /pg 61
• Now consider two identical flows (i.e.
with the same values of the flow
variables (V , p ,   , T ) with
similar objects but of different sizes.
Such flows are called geometrically
similar
• If Re and M  are the same in two
geometrically similar flows, then the
flows are called dynamically similar
• CL, CD, and CM, are identical for
dynamically similar flows

EXAMPLE 2.2
11
12
L/D ratio
• Of course L, D, and M are useful design parameters but
another useful parameter is the lift-to-drag ratio
L/ D  CL /CD
• When the objective is to minimize the drag. Clearly, the
higher this ratio, the lower the drag and therefore, the better
the design
• See next slide for( L/D)max values of different aircraft
• Recall that aerodynamic data
• for infinite wings is denoted by lower case letters (cl, cd, and cm)
• and for finite wings by (CL, CD, and CM)

EXAMPLE 2.3
15
The Lift Curve
• We have studied airfoil nomenclature in
our course “AE 180: Introduction to
Aerospace Engineering” and how to
interpret airfoil data for infinite wings.
Review this material on your own now.
• Let’s just briefly review how cl, cd, and cm,
vary with (, Re, M  ) . Begin with cl :
• A typical cl versus  graph is shown in
Fig. 2.7. This graph is called the lift curve.
• • For thin airfoils it can be shown that the
The lift curve is linear for small values of
 (approximately +10o). The slope of this theoretical value of a0 is 2 per radian
linear portion is called the lift-slope and is (i.e., 0.11 per degree)
denoted by a0. i.e. • Notice from the graph that cl is not zero at
 = 0. In fact cl is zero at an angle of
attack labeled L= 0 and is called the zero-
dc l
a0  lift angle of attack
d

Stall
• For symmetrical airfoils, L= 0. All posi-
tively cambered airfoils have negative
values for L= 0 but all negatively camber-
ed airfoils have positive values for L= 0
• Notice also from the graph that for large
values of , the lift curve becomes non-
linear. The lift coefficient reaches a
maximum value (cl)max and then drops
sharply because the flow of air has
separated form the airfoil on the upper
surface. The point where this happens is
called stall • Study the NACA airfoil data graphs care-
• In the linear portion of the lift curve, the fully. These curves are given for cl, cd,
airflow remains attached to the surface of M  and Re is
and cm. Their variation with
the airfoil shown but variation with is not shown
• Remember that flow separation is a • So now let’s look at the variation of cm,c/4
viscous phenomenon i.e. viscosity makes and cd with 
it happen. If there were no viscosity (i.e. if
the flow were inviscid), there would be no
separation
Moment Variation with 
• The variation of cm,c/4 with  is shown in Fig 2.8. the curve is
essentially linear over a wide range of alpha (i.e., the slope
dc m ,c / 4
is constant in this range) m  0
d
• This slope is positive for some airfoils but it can also be negative.
• The curve becomes nonlinear at high values of  because the flow
separates on the top surface of the airfoil, and also at high negative
values  because the flow separates on the bottom surface

Drag Variation with 
• The generic variation of cd with  is shown in Fig 2.9. For a cambered airfoil, the minimum
drag (cd)min does not necessarily occur at  = 0
• The drag curve shows a flat minimum

Lift Variation with Mach Number
For a conventional airfoil, the variation of cl
with mach no is shown in Fig 2.10
the dashed line is Prandtl–
Glauert correction for
compressibility The solid curve shows the
variation of cl for all flow regimes -
subsonic, transonic, and
supersonic.

Variation with Mach Number M 

Variation with Mach Number M 
• If the Prandtl–Glauert correction for compressibility is applied, the curve takes the shape of the
dashed line. At sonic speed, there is a discontinuity.
• The solid curve shows the variation of cl for all flow regimes - subsonic, transonic, and
supersonic. In the transonic region, the curve shows some oscillation

Drag Variation with Mach Number
• The variation of cd with Mach number is shown in Fig 2.11
• Notice that cd is constant for speeds less than the critical Mach
number Mcrit.

Critical Mach Number
• The critical Mach number is that free-stream Mach number at which
sonic flow is encountered at some location on the airfoil

Critical Mach Number
25
Shock wave
26
Shock wave and Wave Drag
27
Drag Divergence
• Above M and up until M   1 , the drag increases drastically. This
crit
effect is call drag divergence. The Mach number at which this
phenomenon begins is called the drag divergence Mach number M DD
• Beyond Mach one, the cd curve begins to drop. A sketch of the flow
pattern around the airfoil is shown in Fig 2.11 for each flow regime
• Question: how do you locate the

aerodynamic center ?

Aerodynamic centre
Now study solved example 2.3/pg. 70
• By definition, the aerodynamic center (a.c.) is that point on the body

about which the moments are independent of the angle of attack i.e. c ma .c .
is constant over the practical range of

Summary
L  L(  ,V , S , ,   , a  ) • Drag divergence and drag divergence
D  D(  ,V , S , ,   , a  ) Mach number
• Lift-to-drag ratio
M  M (  ,V , S , ,   , a  )
• Study Ex 2.3/pg 70
C L  C L (, Re, M  ) • Center of pressure (c.p.) and aerodynamic
C D  C D (, Re, M  ) center (a.c.)
C M  C M (, Re, M  )
• Aerodynamic coefficients for infinite
wings; cl, cd, and cm
• Study Ex 2.2/pg 60
• Lift curve cl vs (NACA airfoil data)
• Stall, critical Mach number
• cl vs cd vs 

Locating the Aerodynamic Center
• To locate the a.c. we refer to Fig 2.14. Let
the a.c. be located at a distance xa.c. aft of
the quarter chord point. Then the moment
about the a.c. is
M a.c  Lx a.c.  M c 4 [2.10]
• Dividing by q  Sc gives dc ma .c .
• But, by definition, we have 0
M a .c . L  x a .c .  M c / 4 d
   • Also, dc l dc mc / 4
q  Sc q  S  c  q  Sc  a 0 and  m0
d d
• Expressing terms in aerodynamic • Substituting into (2.12) gives
coefficients, gives
x  [2.13] x 
c m a . c .  c l  a .c .   c m c / 4 [2.11] 0  a 0  a .c .   m 0
 c   c 
• Differentiating wrt , gives i.e., x a .c . m [2.14]
 0
c a0
 x  dc dc mC 4
dc ma .c
  a .c .  l  [2.12]
d  c  d d • Now study solved example 2.4/pg. 72

EXAMPLE 2.4
32
FINITE WING
(3-D WING)
Wing tip effects
33
34
35
36
37
Review from Intro to aero
• You should now review your NACA Airfoil Nomenclature
from Introduction to Aerospace Engineering. Study the
4-digit, 5-digit, and 6-digit number code for airfoils and
understand the interpretation of this number system. This
topic is also covered in section 2.7/page 73 of the text for
this course
• The aerodynamic coefficients cl, cd, and cm , can be
obtained for several 2-dimensional airfoils from the NACA
data bank. These data do not apply for 3-D (finite) wings;
some adjustments need to be made but first you must
review your knowledge of wing geometry, which is shown in
Fig 2.20
Difference between CL and cl
• Remember that the lift of a finite wing is different from the lift of an
infinite wing due to the existence of wing-tip vortices shown in Fig
2.21

Infinite and Finite Wings
• The vortices generate a downward air velocity called downwash w
which alters the direction of the free stream velocity as indicated in Fig
2.22
• As a result, the effective angle of attack changes, which also changes
the lift on the wing

Infinite and Finite Wings

General Type of wings
• CL and cl are different from each other and the magnitude of this difference
depends on the shape of the wing.
• There are four general categories of wing shapes

– High-aspect-ratio straight wings
– Low-aspect-ratio straight wings
– Swept wings
– Delta wings
• We will examine these wings briefly and only to the extent that will be needed
for airplane performance calculations
Chapter 2 - PART A (Lift Characteristics) 42

Low and High Aspect Ratio

Swept Wings

X29

Delta wings

How to Find lift curve slope for any wing
• Lift slope of an infinite wing is a0
• Lift slope for a finite wing is a
• We are interested in finding lift slope for a finite wing
a = dCL/d
• For the four general categories of wing shapes
– High-aspect-ratio straight wings
– Low-aspect-ratio straight wings
– Swept wings
– Delta wings

How to Find lift curve slope for any wing
• Procedure for all will be to modify of the lift slope of an infinite wing
a0 = dcl /d
• To get (a) lift slope of an finite wing
• a0 is obtained from experimental data or NACA data as in fig below
• Then this value is modified for various types of wings using
different empirical relations

How to get lift curve slope for
High-Aspect-Ratio Straight Wing [AR > 4]
54
• This wing is the choice for relatively low-speed subsonic airplanes.
Prandtl’s Lifting Line Theory provides an estimate of the
lift slope for a finite wing (a = dCL/d )
in terms of the lift slope of an infinite wing (a0 = dcl /d ).
• According to this theory, the lift slope for a finite wing in
incompressible flow is given by the relation [2.15]
a0
a
a0
1
e1 AR
where e1 is a factor that depends on the geometric shape of the wing.

Its typical value is 0.95.

• Lift curves for different aspect
ratios are shown in Fig 2.23
• Notice that the zero-lift angle of

attack is the same for all aspect
ratios.
• Slope reduces with decreasing

aspect ratio for a given angle of
attack,
• while CL becomes smaller with
decrease in the aspect ratio

High-Aspect-Ratio Straight Wing
• Remember that Equation (2.15) applies for incompressible flow which
limits its use to low-speed aircraft (M < 0.3)
• Today, however, most aircraft fly at M > 0.3 and so a correction for
compressibility must be made to equation (2.15) for such aircraft
• So, for high-speed subsonic compressible flow, the lift slope is calculated
from the Prandtl-Glauert rule:
a0
a 0, comp 
1  M 2
• Using this modified expression for the lift slope in eqn (2.15), we obtain
the corresponding compressible lift slope for the finite wing as:
[2.15a]
a 0, comp
a comp 
a 0,comp
1
e1 AR

• Substituting the expression for a0,comp into (2.15a), we obtain:

a0
a comp 
a0 [2.16]
1  M 2 
e1 AR
M   0.7
• This formula is not recommended for

a0
a comp 
• : 1  M 2 
a0
e1 AR
[2.16]
• A plot of acomp versus M is shown in Fig 2.24


• For supersonic flow over a high-
aspect-ratio wing, the lift-slope
can be approxi-mated from
supersonic linear theory as
4
a comp 
M 2  1 [2.17)
Now study solved examples 2.5, 2.6 and

2.7 on pages 84 and 85

61
EXAMPLE 2.6
62
a0
a comp 
a0
1  M 2 
e1 AR 4
a comp 
M 2  1

Low-Aspect-Ratio Straight Wing [AR < 4]
• To model a large aspect ratio wing, we
used a single lifting line across the wing
span to represent the finite wing (See Fig
2.25a). This is a good model for large
aspect ratio wings.
• But for low aspect ratio wings, a single
lifting line is a poor model of the finite wings
(see Fig 2.25 b). Instead of a single
spanwise lifting line, we must now use a
large number of spanwise vortices as
shown in Fig 2.25c. This is the essence of
lifting surface theory.
• An approximate relation for the lift slope for • Hembold’s equation is:
low-aspect ratio straight wings was
obtained by H.B. Hembold and was based a0
a [2.18a]
2
on a lifting surface solution for elliptic wings.  a  a
1  0   0
 AR  AR
• For subsonic compressible flow, Prandtl-
Glauert’s compressibility correction must
be applied to this equation . This
relationship then becomes
a0
comp 
a[2.18b]
2
 a  a
1 M   0   0
2

 AR  AR
• For supersonic flow over a low-aspect-

ratio straight wing, Hoerner and Borst
suggest the following equation, which they
obtained from supersonic linearized theory
for finite wings
4  1  Now study solved examples 2.8/pg.88 and
[2.18c]
a comp  1  
M 2  1  2 AR M 2  1  2.9, and 2.10 /pg. 89
• An example of a low-aspect-ratio wing is

the F-104 starfighter

EXAMPLE 2.7
66
EXAMPLE 2.9
67
EXAMPLE 2.10
68
Swept Wings
• At supersonic speeds , shock waves are
formed which give rise to a drag called
wave drag. The main purpose of swept
wings is to reduce wave drag.
• A swept wing has a lower lift coefficient
than a straight wing, everything else being
equal. Fig 2.28 shows a straight wing and
a swept wing whose angle of sweep is 
• A tapered swept wing is shown in Fig 2.29
• In this case, the wingspan b, is the
straight line distance between the wing
tips; the sweep angle  is referenced to
the half-chord line. Sometimes, the sweep
angle is referenced to the quarter-chord
line
• Aerodynamic properties of swept wings at
low speeds are calculated from lifting
surface theory
Swept Wings (contd.)
• From Fig 2.28 we note that the lift slope
for an infinite swept wing should be
a0cos where a0 is the lift slope for the
airfoil section perpendicular to the L.E.
• So the lift slope ‘a’ for the swept wing can
be obtained from Hembold’s equation
(2.18 a) by replacing a0 with a0cos
a 0 cos 
a
2
[2.19]
 a cos   a cos 
1  0   0
 AR  AR
where  is referenced to the half-chord

line
• If the compressibility correction is to be
included, then the above equation
modifies to

Swept Wings (concluded)
a 0 cos 
a [2.22] 1
2
 a cos   a cos  i.e., q  p M 2 [2.23]
1  M 2 cos 2    0   0 2
 AR  AR
• • Thus we see that the dynamic pressure

The dynamic pressure can be written in
varies as the square of the Mach number
terms of Mach number as follows
1 and can therefore be quite large at
q    V2 supersonic speeds
2
1 p • In some special cases, the normal force
 . V2 coefficient CN can be used in place of the
2 p
lift coefficient CL:
1 
 p .  V2 • For an airplane cruising at supersonic
2 p
speeds in steady level flight, the lift is
1 V2 equal to the weight, L = W. Therefore,
 p . 2
2 a
[2.24] W
1 CL 
 p M 2 q S
2
• From this formula, we can see that when q


Swept Wings (concluded)
is large, CL is small. In turn, CL is small
when  is small. And when  is small, CL
= CN . Therefore, for normal design
purposes, we can assume that CN = CL
Now study solved examples 2.11/pg.97

and 2.12, and Design Cameo/pg. 98

EXAMPLE 2.11
74
75
EXAMPLE 2.12
76
An other solution is variable sweep 77
Delta Wings
DELTA WINGS:
• Swept wings that have planforms shown in Fig 2.32 are called delta wings
• Actually, -wings are swept wings with a high angle of sweep
• The space shuttle orbiter is a double-delta wing airplane
• Delta wings are used for supersonic flight.

Delta Wings
Space shuttle has

double delta wing

The Space Shuttle Orbiter
(is a Double-Delta Wing)
Double-Delta Wing on Orbiter

Air Flow Around Delta Wings
• A qualitative sketch of the flow field over a
delta wing at a non-zero angle of attack is
shown in Fig 2.33. Notice that the flow
over a low-aspect ratio -wing at low
speeds is completely different from that
for a straight wing or a high aspect-ratio
delta wing:
• Fig 2.33 illustrates that two vortices are
formed along the highly swept leading
edges and they trail downstream over the
top of the wing
• The pressure on the bottom surface of the
wing is higher than the pressure on the • This separated flow curls up into a vortex
top surface. Thus, the flow tries to curl up
called the primary vortex just inboard of
at the LE from the bottom to the top
the LE. The line along which this separ-
• If the LE is sharp, the flow will separate ation occurs is called the primary
along its entire length. separation line, labeled S1 in Fig 2.33
Vortex Lift
• The stream surface that has separated at
the LE loops above the wing and then
reattaches along the line labeled A1, is
called the primary reattachment line
• The primary vortex is contained in this
loop
• A secondary vortex is formed under-neath
the primary vortex with its own separation
line denoted by S2 and its own
reattachment line labeled A2 • Hence, the vortices create a lower
• Such vortex flow is friendly in regard to pressure on the top surface than would
the production of lift (i.e., it improves the exist if the vortices were not there
lift of the wing) • This increases the lift compared to what it
• Both vortices are strong and generally would be without the vortices
stable. They are a source of high energy • The portion of the lift due to the action of
and the local static pressure in the vicinity the LE vortices is called Vortex Lift
of the vortex is small
x
• x • x

x
• x • x

Spanwise Pressure Coefficient
Distribution Across a -wing
• x • x

CL versus  for a Delta Wing
• A typical variation of CL vs  for a delta
wing is shown in Fig 2.34
• Here, low-speed experimental data are
plotted for a -wing with AR = 1.46
AR = 1.46
• A theoretical calculation, which assumes
potential flow without the LE vortices, is
also shown. This lift is called the potential-
flow lift
• The difference between the potential flow
lift and the experimental data is called
vortex lift. Vortex lift is the major
contributor to the overall lift of the wing
• Notice from Fig 2.34 that the vortex lift is
about equal to the potential flow lift for
high angles of attack

CL versus  for a Delta Wing
• The lift curve in Fig 2.34 illustrates three
important characteristics of the lift of low-
aspect-ratio -wings:
– The lift-slope is small (~0.05/deg)
AR =1.46
– The lift continues to increase over a large
range of ; in Fig 2.34 stall ~ 350. The
net result is a reasonable value of CL,max
(~ 1.35)
– The curve is nonlinear
• It is for this reason that low-aspect-ratio
vehicles, such as the space shuttle orbiter
and the concord, both land at a high . In
fact,  is so large that the front part of the
fuselage (i.e., the cockpit) must be
drooped upon landing in order for the pilot
to see the runway (see Fig 1.35 on the
next page)

For low speed delta wings J H B Smith equation gives
analytical result for calculation of normal force coefficient CN as
Where
Angle of attack is in radians and
s and I are defined for delta wing as:
91
Experimental results and theory compared for dela wings
92
Reference 24
The Concorde Supersonic Transport
• Notice the high angle of attack for landing and the drooped nose in order for the
pilot to be able to see the runway

EXAMPLE 2.13
94
95
CL for Wing-Body Combination
• What we have studied so far is the lift on • For subsonic speeds, however, the lift of
just the wing. However, we must the W-B combination can be treated as
determine the lift from the combination of simply the lift on the complete wing by
the fuselage and the wing together. This is itself, including that portion of the wing
called the wing-body (W-B) combination which is masked by the fuselage. This has
• The lift of the W-B combination is not proven to be a reasonable approximation
obtained by simply adding the individual for preliminary airplane performance and
lift contributions. This is so because the design calculations
flow field of the W-B combination is quite • Hence, when we talk about a reference
different from the flow fields of the area S of a wing, we will mean that the
individual components portion masked by the fuselage is also
• In fact, no accurate analytical formula included
exists to predict the lift of the W-B • At supersonic speeds, the situation is quite
combination. This can only be achieved different because it involves complex
from wind tunnel tests or from shock wave interaction and impingement
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) on the surface. Again, we must depend on
wind tunnel tests & CFD
• Next slides are from Raymer (AVD book)
• Comprehensive empirical relations for

estimation of wing lift slope

Subsonic Lift-Curve Slope
• Following equation is semi-empirical formula for
complete wing lift curve slope (per radian)
Sweep where
airfoil is thickest
Range 0.9-1.0
• This is accurate up to drag divergent mach no

and up till mach 1 for swept wings
• “F” is fuselage lift factor and is given as
d is fuselage dia and b wing span
98
Aspect ratio Calculation
( in lift curve slope)
99
Lift Curve Slope Vs Mach No
100
Supersonic Lift-Curve Slope
101
How to Use Charts
102
For Taper ratio =0
Fig 12.7 (from Raymer)

Wing supersonic lift curve slope
For Taper ratio =1/5
For Taper ratio = 1/4
For Taper ratio = 1
Transonic Lift-Curve Slope
113
114
THANK YOU
QUESTIONS?
115
116

Chapter 2 (PART A) 17

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Chapter 2 (PART A) 17

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Chapter 2 (PART A)

Lift Characteristics of the Airplane

12/02/20 Chapter 2 - PART A (Lift Characteristics) 1

• The source of this aerodynamic force is

12/02/20 Chapter 2 - PART A (Lift Characteristics) 3

•The moment of R aboutVthe quarter-chord point is

•Now L and D are both distributed loads. For

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Study solved example 2.1 on page 56

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1 shown that the aerodynamic coefficients

• c is the characteristic length of the object. C L  C L (, Re, M  ) [2.9a]

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• Question: how do you locate the

12/02/20 Chapter 2 - PART A (Lift Characteristics) 28

• By definition, the aerodynamic center (a.c.) is that point on the body

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Wing tip effects

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• There are four general categories of wing shapes

Chapter 2 - PART A (Lift Characteristics) 42

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High-Aspect-Ratio Straight Wing [AR > 4]

where e1 is a factor that depends on the geometric shape of the wing.

12/02/20 Chapter 2 - PART A (Lift Characteristics) 55

• Notice that the zero-lift angle of

• Slope reduces with decreasing

12/02/20 Chapter 2 - PART A (Lift Characteristics) 56

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• Substituting the expression for a0,comp into (2.15a), we obtain:

12/02/20 Chapter 2 - PART A (Lift Characteristics) 58

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Now study solved examples 2.5, 2.6 and

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• For supersonic flow over a low-aspect-

• An example of a low-aspect-ratio wing is

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where  is referenced to the half-chord

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• • Thus we see that the dynamic pressure

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