Measurement and Instrumentation

Measurement System Behavior

Dr. Suhas Mohite, PhD, IISc, Banglore

Professor,
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
College of Engineering, Pune
Dynamic Characteristics
Dynamic characteristics tell us about how well a sensor responds to
changes in its input. For dynamic signals, the sensor or the
measurement system must be able to respond fast enough to keep up
with the input signals.

Input signal Sensor Output signal

x(t) or y(t)
system

In many situations, we must use y(t) to infer x(t), therefore a

qualitative understanding of the operation that the sensor or
measurement system performs is imperative to understanding the
input signal correctly.
 General Model For A Measurement System
nth Order ordinary linear differential equation with constant coefficient
d n y (t ) d n 1 y (t ) dy(t ) d m x(t ) d m 1 x(t ) dx(t )
an  a n 1    a1  a 0 y (t )  bm  bm 1    b1  b0 x(t )
dt n dt n 1 dt dt m dt m 1 dt

x(t) = forcing function

Where m ≤ n
y(t) = output from the system
x(t) = input to the system
t = time
a’s and b’s = system physical parameters, assumed constant
y(0)
The solution y (t )  yocf  yopi

x(t) y(t)
Measurement Where
system yocf = complementary-function part of solution
yopi = particular-integral part of solution
Complementary-Function Solution

The solution yocf is obtained by calculating the n roots of the algebraic characteristic
equation
Characteristic equation an D n  an 1 D n 1  ...  a1D  a0  0

Roots of the characteristic equation: D  s1 , s2 ,..., sn

Complementary-function solution:

1. Real roots, unrepeated: Ce st

2. Real roots, repeated:

each root s which appear p times C 0  C1t  C 2 t 2
 ...  C p 1t p 1
 e st

3. Complex roots, unrepeated: Ce at sin(bt   )

the complex form: a  ib
[C0 sin(bt  0 )  C1t sin(bt  1 )  C2t 2 sin(bt   2 )
4. Complex roots, repeated:
each pair of complex root which appear p times  ...  C p 1t p 1 sin(bt   p 1 )]e at
Particular Solution

Method of undetermined coefficients:

yopi  Af (t )  Bf (t )  Cf (t )  ...

Where f(t) = the function that describes input quantity

A, B, C = constant which can be found by substituting yopi into ODEs

Important Notes

 •• After a certain-order derivative, all higher derivatives are zero.

 After a certain-order derivative, all higher derivatives have the same
functional form as some lower-order derivatives.
• Upon repeated differentiation, new functional forms continue to arise.
Zero-order Systems

All the a’s and b’s other than a0 and b0 are zero.
a0 y( t )  b0 x( t ) y( t )  K x( t ) where K = static sensitivity = b0/a0

The behavior is characterized by its static sensitivity, K and remains

constant regardless of input frequency (ideal dynamic characteristic).

xm
x
V  Vr  here, K  Vr / xm
Vr + xm
y=V Where 0  x  xm and Vr is a reference voltage
x=0 -

A linear potentiometer used as position sensor is a zero-order sensor.

A linear spring (translational
or torsion) used as position
sensor is a zero-order sensor.
 First-Order Instrument:Modeling
A mercury-in-glass thermometer Heat transfer rate at the fluid - solid interface :
used to measure temperature is dQ
 hA(T  T )......(i)
a first-order sensor. dt
Heat absorbed/released by the mercury bulb :
Q  mc p T
Rate of heat absorption/release by the bulb :
To dQ dT
 mc p ......(ii)
T dt dt
Equating (i) and (ii) we get,
dT
mc p  hA(T  T )
T dt
mc p dT
 T  T
hA dt
dT T
  T  T or T 
T is the measured temperature
dt (1  D)
To is the initial temperature
mc p
T is the steady-state or environment temperature where   is the time constant.
hA
First-Order System:Comparison with General Model
dT( t ) T 1
  T( t )  T or 
dt T (D  1)
mc p
where,   is the time constant,
hA
Also the input x( t )  T , for t  0.

All the a’s and b’s other than a1, a0 and b0 are zero.
dy (t )
a1  a0 y (t )  b0 x(t )
dt
dy (t ) y K
  y (t )  Kx (t ) ( D) 
dt x D  1
Where
K = b0/a0 is the static sensitivity or gain (in this case K=1)

 = a1/a0 is the system’s time constant (in this case =mcp/hA dimension of time)

 is the measure of speed of response of the system

Response of First-Order System to a step-input

dT
  T  T
dt e t /
Multiplying by integrating factor
t dT 1 t 1 t
dv du d
e 
 Te  T e 

Note the form u v  (uv)
dt   dt dt dt
d  t
 
1 t
 T e   T  e 
dt   
d  t  1 t Integrating both sides
 dt  Te  dt    T e  dt
 Te t    T e t   C........(iii ) C is the constant of integration whose

  value is evaluated using the initial condition
at t  0, T  To  C  To  T
T  T t
 e  .................(iv ) Substituting the value of C in eq. (iii)
To  T
T  To t
 1 e  ........(v) Alternatively eq.(iv) can also be written as (v)
T  To
 Heating and Cooling curves
• When a thermometer is suddenly placed into a different temperature environment,
the instrument temperature reading changes until the instrument temperature
reaches a steady-state (same temperature as the environment).
• This transient temperature measurement demonstrates the dynamic behavior of the
instrument.
• It is important to know how long it takes the instrument to reach steady-state so that
accurate temperature of the environment can be recorded at the appropriate time
interval.
First-Order Systems
All the a’s and b’s other than a1, a0 and b0 are zero.
dy (t )
a1  a0 y (t )  b0 x(t )
dt
dy (t ) y K
  y (t )  Kx (t ) ( D) 
dt x D  1

Where
K = b0/a0 is the static sensitivity or gain

 = a1/a0 is the system’s time constant (dimension of time)

 is the measure of speed of response of the system
 Response of a system in time domain

We can analyze the response of the control systems in both the

time domain and the frequency domain. (We will discuss frequency
response analysis of control systems in later chapters.)

Let us now discuss about the time response analysis of control

systems.
What is Time Response?
If the output of control system for an input varies with respect to
time, then it is called the time response of the control system. The
time response consists of two parts.
• Transient response
• Steady state response
Response of a First-Order System to a step input

A typical response of a first order system to a step input in

time domain is shown in the following figure.
Transient and steady state response of first order and
secondorder systems when subjected to standard input
signals
Standard test signals: Impulse, Step, ramp,
Parabolic, Sinusoidal
 First-Order Systems: Step Response
Assume for t < 0, y = y0 , at time = 0 the input quantity, x increases instantly
by an amount A. Therefore t > 0
0 t  0
x(t )  AU (t )  
A t  0
dy (t )
  y (t )  KAU (t )
dt

The complete solution: y (t )  Ce t /  KA

2

yocf yopi
Transient Steady state
response response
U(t)

Applying the initial condition, we get C = y0-KA, thus

gives
0 y (t )  KA  ( y0  KA)e t /
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Time, t
 First-Order Systems: Step Response

Here, we define the term error fraction as

y (t )  KA y (t )  y ()
em (t )    e t /
y0  KA y (0)  y ()

1.0 1.0
Output Signal, (y(t)-y0)/(KA-y0)

y (t )  KA
.8 .8  e t / 
y (0)  KA

Error fraction, em
.6 0.632 .6

y (t )  y0
.4  1  e t /  .4 0.368
KA  y0

.2 .2

0.0 0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
t/ t/
Non-dimensional step response of first-order instrument
Determination of Time constant

y (t )  KA t
em   e t /  ln em  2.3 log em  
y (0)  KA 

1
y (t )  KA
0.368  e t /
y (0)  KA
Error fraction,em

.1
Slope = -1/

.01

.001
0 1 2 3 4 5
t
First-Order Systems: Ramp Response
Assume that at initial condition, both y and x = 0, at time = 0, the input quantity
start to change at a constant rate q is Thus, we have

0 t0
x(t )  
q is t t  0
Therefore dy (t )
  y (t )  Kq is tU (t )
dt

The complete solution: y (t )  Ce  t /  Kq is (t   )

Transient Steady state

response response

Applying the initial condition, gives y (t )  Kq is (e  t /  t   )

y (t )
Measurement error em  x(t )   q ise t /  q is
K

Transient Steady
error state error
First-Order Instrument: Ramp Response

10

Output signal, y/K 8

6
Steady state
time lag = 
4

Steady state
2 error = q is

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
t/

Non-dimensional ramp response of first-order instrument

1/(jWT+1)
1/(1+W^2T^2)^(1/2)
First-Order Systems: Frequency Response

From the response of first-order system to sinusoidal inputs, x(t )  A sin t

we have dy
  y  A sin t
dt
D  1 y (t )  A sin t
A
sin t  tan 1   where , C 
A
y (t )  Ce t / 
1  ( ) 2 1  ( ) 2
The complete solution:
Transient Steady state Frequency
response response = response

If we do interest in only steady state response of the system, we can write the
equation in general form
y (t )  Ce  t /  H ( ) sin t   ( )
A
H ( ) 
1  ( ) 2 1/ 2

 ( )   tan 1 
Where B() = amplitude of the steady state response and () = phase shift
First-Order Instrument: Frequency Response
H 1
M ( )  
A 1     2 1/ 2  
1
The amplitude ratio M ( )  The phase angle is  ( )   tan 1 ( )
( ) 2  1
1.2 Dynamic error 0
-10
1.0 0
-20

Phase shift, ()

Amplitude ratio

.8 -30

Decibels (dB)
-2
-3 dB
0.707 -40
.6 -4
-50
-6
.4 -8 -60
-10 -70
.2 Cutoff frequency -80
-20
0.0 -90
.01 .1 1 10 100 .01 .1 1 10 100

 
Frequency response of the first order system

Dynamic error, () = M(): a measure of an inability of a system to

adequately reconstruct the amplitude of the input for a particular frequency
Dynamic Characteristics

Frequency Response describe how the ratio of output and input changes
with the input frequency. (sinusoidal input)

Dynamic error, () = 1- M() a measure of the inability of a system or sensor to

adequately reconstruct the amplitude of the input for a particular frequency

Bandwidth the frequency band over which M()  0.707 (-3 dB in decibel unit)

Cutoff frequency: the frequency at which the system response has fallen to
0.707 (-3 dB) of the stable low frequency.

0.35
tr 
fc
First-Order Systems: Frequency Response
Ex: Inadequate frequency response
Suppose we want to measure
x(t )  sin 2t  0.3 sin 20t
x(t) With a first-order instrument whose  is 0.2 s and
static sensitivity K

Superposition concept:
K
For  = 2 rad/s: B(2 rad/s)    21.8o  0.93K  21.8o
0.16  1

K
y(t)/K For  = 20 rad/s: B (20 rad/s)    76o  0.24 K  76o
16  1

Therefore, we can write y(t) as

y (t )  (1)(0.93K ) sin(2t  21.8o )  (0.3)(0.24 K ) sin(20t  76o )

y (t )  0.93K sin(2t  21.8o )  0.072 K sin(20t  76o )

 Dynamic Characteristics
Example: A first order instrument is to measure signals with frequency content up to 100 Hz with
an inaccuracy of 5%. What is the maximum allowable time constant? What will be the phase shift
at 50 and 100 Hz?
Qo (i ) K
Solution: Define  M ( ) 
Qi (i )  2 2  1
M ( )  M (0)  1 
Dynamic error   100%    1  100%
M (0)    1 
2 2

1
From the condition |Dynamic error| < 5%, it implies that 0 . 95   1.05
  1
2 2

But for the first order system, the term 1 /  2 2  1 can not be greater than 1 so that the
constrain becomes 1
0.95  1
  1 2 2

Solve this inequality give the range 0    0.33

0.33
The largest allowable time constant for the input frequency 100 Hz is    0.52 ms
2 100 Hz
The phase shift at 50 and 100 Hz can be found from    arctan 

This give  = -9.33o and = -18.19o at 50 and 100 Hz respectively

Second-Order Systems

In general, a second-order measurement system subjected to arbitrary input, x(t)

2
d y (t ) dy (t )  ( j ) 2 2 
a2  a  a0 y (t )  b0 x(t )   j   1 y (t )  Kx(t )
 n n
2
dt 2 1
dt 

1 d 2 y (t ) 2 dy (t )
  y (t )  Kx(t )
n dt
2 2
n dt

The essential parameters d 2 y (t ) dy (t )

M  B  Ky (t )  f (t )
b0
dt 2 dt
K 
= thea static sensitivity
0
d 2 q (t ) dq(t )
a L  R  (q(t ) / C )  V (t )
 = the1 damping ratio, dimensionless dt 2
dt
2 a0 a2

= thea0natural angular frequency

n 
a2
Second-Order Systems

Consider the characteristic equation

1 2 2
D  D 1  0
n2 n
This quadratic equation has two roots:
S1, 2   n  n  2  1

Depending on the value of , three forms of complementary solutions are possible

    2 1  t     2 1  t
Overdamped ( > 1): yoc (t )  C1e   n
 C2 e   n

yoc (t )  C1e nt  C2te nt

Critically damped ( = 1):
yoc (t )  (C1  C2t )e nt

Underdamped (< 1): : 

yoc (t )  Ce nt sin n 1   2 t   
Second-Order Systems

Case I Underdamped (< 1): Case 2 Overdamped ( > 1):

 


S1, 2   n  n  2  1 S1, 2      2  1 n
   j d

yt Case 3 Critically damped ( = 1):

Ae t

t


yt

 1
S1, 2  n

sin(d t   )

 1

t
 Second-order Systems

Example: The force-measuring spring

consider a spring with spring constant Ks under applied force fi

and the total mass M. At start, the scale is adjusted so that xo = 0
when fi = 0;
forces=(mass)(acceleration)
dxo d 2 xo
fi  B  K s xo  M
dt dt 2
( MD 2  BD  K s ) xo  f i
the second-order model:
1
K m/N
Ks
Ks
n  rad/s
M
B
 
2 Ks M
Second-order Systems: Step Response

1 d 2 y 2 dy  D 2 2 
For a step input x(t)   y  KAU (t )  2  D  1 y (t )  KAU (t )
n2 dt 2 n dt  n n 

With the initial conditions: y = 0 at t = 0+, dy/dt = 0 at t = 0+

The complete solution:

y (t )    2  1     2 1  n t    2 1     2 1  t

Overdamped ( > 1):  e 
 e   n
1
KA 2  1
2
2  1
2

y (t )
Critically damped ( = 1):  (1  n t )e nt  1
KA

Underdamped (< 1): :

y (t )
KA

e nt
1  2

sin 1   2 nt    1  
  sin 1 1   2 
Second-order Instrument: Step Response
2
Ringing frequency: Td 
d
2.0 =0 Ringing frequency: d  n 1   2
Output signal, y(t)/KA

0.25 Rise time decreases  with but

1.5
increases ringing
0.5

1.0 Optimum settling time can be

obtained from  ~ 0.7

.5
1.0
2.0 Practical systems use 0.6<  <0.8

0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10
nt

Non-dimensional step response of second-order instrument

Dynamic Characteristics
1.4
overshoot
1.2
Output signal, y(t)/KA

1.0 100%  5%

.8

.6

.4
settling
time
.2
rise time
0.0
0 5 10 15 20
Time, t (s)
Typical response of the 2nd order system
Second-order System: Ramp Response

1 d 2 y 2 dy
For a ramp input x(t )  q is tU (t )   yt
n2 dt 2 n dt

With the initial conditions: y = dy/dt = 0 at t = 0+ qo 2q   n t nt 

 q is t  is 1  e (1  )
K n 2 
The possible solutions:
y (t ) 2q is  2 2  1  2  2  1     2 1 n t
 q is t  1  e 
Overdamped: K n 
 4  2  1

 2 2  1  2  2  1     2 1  t 
 e   n 
4   1 2 

y (t ) 2q  nt nt 
Critically damped:  q is t  is 1  (1  )e 
K n  1 

Underdamped:
y (t )
K
 q is t 
2q is
n

1 
e nt
 2 1   2

sin 1   2 nt    


  tan
2 1   2
1

2 2  1
Second-order Instrument: Step Response
2q is
Steady state error =
10 n

8 Steady
 state 2
Output signal, y(t)/K Ramp input
time lag =
n
6

4  = 0.3
0.6
2 1.0
2.0

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time, t (s)

Typical ramp response of second-order instrument

Second-order Instrument: Frequency Response

The response of a second-order to a sinusoidal input of the form x(t) = Asint

KA
y (t )  yoc (t )  sint   ( )
 
1    / n    2 / n 
2 2 2
1/ 2

A+jB
2
where  ( )   tan 1 Mag(sqrt(A^2+B^2
 / n  n / 
Phase arctan(B/A)
The steady state response of a second-order to a sinusoidal input

ysteady (t )  B ( ) sint   ( )

KA 2
B ( )   ( )   tan 1
1   /      2 /   
n
2 2
n
2
1/ 2
 / n   n / 

Where B() = amplitude of the steady state response and () = phase shift
B 1
M ( )  
 
KA 1    /   2 2   2 /   2 1/ 2
n n 
 Second-order Instrument: Frequency Response

The amplitude ratio The phase angle

1 2
M ( )   ( )   tan 1
1   /      2 /   
n
2 2
n
2
1/ 2
 / n  n / 

0
0 = 0.1
2.0 6 -20
 = 0.1 0.3
-40 0.5

Phase shift , 

0.3
Amplitude ratio

1.5 -60
3

Decibel (dB)
1.0
0.5
-80
1.0 0 -100 2.0

-3 -120
1.0
.5 -6 -140
-10
2.0 -15 -160
0.0 -180
.01 .1 1 10 100 .01 .1 1 10 100
n n
Magnitude and Phase plot of second-order Instrument
 Second-order Systems
For overdamped ( >1) or critical damped ( = 1), there is neither overshoot nor steady-
state dynamic error in the response.
In an underdameped system ( < 1) the steady-state dynamic error is zero, but the speed
and overshoot in the transient are related.
1.4
arctan( d /  ) overshoot Td
Rise time: tr 
d 1.2

Output signal, q (t)/Kqis

Maximum
overshoot: 
M p  exp  / 1   2  1.0

o
 .8
Peak time: tp 
d peak
.6 time
Resonance
 r   n 1  2 2 .4
frequency: settling
1 time
Resonance Mr  .2
amplitude: 2 1   2
rise time
0.0
0 5 10 15 20
where  = n ,  d   n 1   2 , and   arcsin( 1   2 ) Time, t (s)
 Dynamic Characteristics

Speed of response: indicates how fast the sensor (measurement system) reacts
to changes in the input variable. (Step input)

Rise time: the length of time it takes the output to reach 10 to 90% of full response
when a step is applied to the input

Time constant: (1st order system) the time for the output to change by 63.2% of its
maximum possible change.

Settling time: the time it takes from the application of the input step until the output
has settled within a specific band of the final value.

Dead time: the length of time from the application of a step change at the input of
the sensor until the output begins to change
 Frequency Response: Bode Plot
In electrical engineering  and control theory, a Bode plot  is a graph of the
frequency response of a system. It is usually a combination of

-a Bode magnitude plot, expressing the magnitude (usually in decibels) of

the frequency response, and

-a Bode phase plot, expressing the phase shift.

As originally conceived by Hendrik Wade Bode in the 1930s, the plot is an

asymptotic approximation of the frequency response using straight line signals.
 The steady-state sinusoidal frequency-response of a circuit is described by the
phasor transfer function H(jw).

 A Bode plot is a graph of the magnitude (in dB) or phase of the transfer function
versus frequency.

 Of course we can easily program the transfer function into a computer to make such
plots, and for very complicated transfer functions this may be our only recourse.

 But in many cases the key features of the plot can be quickly sketched by hand using
some simple rules that identify the impact of the poles and zeroes in shaping the
frequency response.

 The advantage of this approach is the insight it provides on how thecircuit elements
influence the frequency response. This is especially important in the designof
frequency-selective circuits.

 We will first consider how to generate Bode plots for simple poles, and then discuss
how to handle the general second-order response.

 Before doing this, however, it may be helpful to review some properties of transfer
functions, the decibel scale, and properties of the log function.
Bel and desiBel (dB) scale
 H(s)= 1/(s+1) H(s)= s/(s+1) RC=1

The Bode plot for a first-order (one-pole) highpass filter; the

 The Bode plot for a first-order (one-pole) lowpass filter; the straight-line approximations are labeled "Bode pole"; phase
straight-line approximations are labeled "Bode pole"; phase varies from 90° at low frequencies (due to the contribution
is 90° lower than for Figure 1(a) because the phase of the numerator, which is 90° at all frequencies) to 0° at
contribution of the numerator is 0° at all frequencies. high frequencies
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