Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Motivation & Communication
Motivation & Communication
Motivation & Communication
LEADERSHIP
Meaning and importance of directing
The concept and nature of leadership
Leaders & leadership
Fundamental principle of leadership
learning to lead effectively
Leadership effectiveness
Leadership theories & Leadership styles:
Motivation & communication
Meaning & nature of motivation
Motivation theories
1
DIRECTING FUNCTION
After discussing the chapter, you will be able to:
Mention the meaning & importance of directing
Define leaders & leadership
Explain why managers should be leaders
Describe leadership effectiveness
Discuss early leadership theories
Explain contingency theories of leadership
Explain the styles of leadership
Identify contemporary views on leadership
Describe leadership issues in the 21st century
Comprehend communication & motivation in
organization
2
DIRECTING FUNCTION
Meaning & importance of directing
In this unit, the terms directing & leading can be used
interchangeable
Definition
Leading is the management function aimed at setting
organization’s members move in the direction that will achieve
its objectives
Leading is placing oneself before the group, facilitating
progress & inspiring followers to accomplish organizational
objectives
Therefore, directing or leading
is building a climate that provides leadership & arranges the
opportunity for motivation
Is not deriving or pushing from behind
3
DIRECTING FUNCTION
The importance of directing/leading
Directing/leading is an important function of
management
Accordingly, managers should be good leaders
This is b/c organizations will never be successful unless
they have effective leaders
Effective leaders are those who create conducive
environment in the organization
Some of the importance of the directing function:
Initiate actions by giving directives & guidance to employees
Integrates employees’ effort by coordinating their actions to
attain organizational objectives
Attempts to get the maximum output from employees by fully
utilizing their potentials 4
DIRECTING FUNCTION
Importance of directing /leading
In general, directing enables subordinates to contribute their
best to attain the goals of the organization
In order to employees contribute towards organizational goal
attainment managers
Should try to integrate both organizational & individual
objectives
Must be good leaders (providing effective leadership)in guiding,
counseling & influencing subordinates
Should win subordinates confidence & acceptance
Note: whatever amount of capital invested & technology
an organization has, without effective leadership the
organization will not be successful
5
DIRECTING FUNCTION
The Concept & nature of leadership
Thousands of studies have been conducted to know about
the nature of leadership
However, there is still a great deal we do not know
Though leadership is broad enough researchers have
focused on two important issues:
Why some organizational members become leaders
while others do not?
Why some leaders are successful while others are not?
Exercise:
Why leadership is so important?
Ideally, all managers should be leaders. discuss
6
DIRECTING
Why leadership isFUNCTION
so important?
When groups or organizations:
Are successful their leadership receives too much credit
Fail their leadership gets too much of the blame
Nevertheless, leaders make a difference, & leadership is a critical
variable in shaping organizational effectiveness
Leaders can make a difference in terms of relevant and results:
Performance & goal attainment
Individual growth & development
Do all managers should be leaders?
Ideally, all managers should be leaders
To answer the question, you have to identify the main functions of a
manager?
Leaders & leadership
Leader is someone who can influence others & who has managerial
authority
Leadership is what leaders do: the process of influencing a group to
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achieve goals
DIRECTING FUNCTION
Leaders & leadership
Note; although groups may have informal leaders who emerge, those
are not the leaders we are focusing
Leadership is the ability of an individual to influence, motive &
enable others to contribute toward the effectiveness & success of the
organization (House et al., 1999)
Leadership is the process of influencing others to facilitate the
attainment of organizational relevant goals (Ivancevich, 1999,p.409)
Leadership is both a process & a property (Heiftz & Lauries,
1997:124)
As a process leadership is the use of non-coercive influence to:
Shape the group’s or organization’s goals.
Motivate behavior toward the achievement of those goals
Help define group or organization culture
As a property leadership is the set of characteristics attributed to individuals who
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perceived to be leaders
DIRECTING FUNCTION
Management vs. leadership
Management is a broad subject that encompasses activities such as
planning, organizing, directing & controlling
Leadership, in contrast focuses on the aspects of people for getting a job
done through inspiring, directing & gaining commitment towards
organizational activities & goals
Thus, leadership is one aspect of management & complements it
Exercise: how managers can be effective leaders?
Fundamental principles of leadership
Normally, managers can be effective leaders if:
They understand what motivates their subordinates & how these
motivations operate.
They reflect this understanding in carrying out their managerial actions
Because people tend to follow those who, in their view, offer them a means of
satisfying their own personal goals
9
DIRECTING FUNCTION
Leadership effectiveness
Excellent leaders are born as well as made
To be the best, however, learn the essential skills of leadership
through:
Formal training courses
On-the-job experience
In general, leadership effectiveness can be enhanced by:
Focusing on quality
Learning from others
Gaining experiences
Mastering key leadership roles
Focusing on quality
The aim of leadership is to help others to achieve their personal best
This involves setting high but realistic performance goals for your
self & staff
This is striving for total quality in all areas
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DIRECTING FUNCTION
Leadership effectiveness
Focusing on quality
Targets for improving standards of quality
Leadership –the ability to influence others
Strategy –the means to achieve objectives
People –are those who create value
Resources –are vital intangibles required for processing
Processes – are referring to systematic way of doing things
Learning from others
Improving skills through observation
Using formal training – gives you fresh perspective
Coaching others (communicating clearly, getting feedback, delegating, motivating,
developing people)
Always be on the look-out for chances to learn valuable lessons
Take a refresher course if you feel you need to brush-up on rusty skills
Use coaching sessions to teach as well as learn
Learn ----- coach -------- raise performance 11
DIRECTING FUNCTION
Leadership effectiveness
Gaining experience
Promotion to leadership positions used to depend on rising up the company
hierarchy
Nowadays, vital works are increasing carried out by temporary teams working on
specific projects
Provides ideal opportunities for learning leadership skills
So experience can be gained trough:
Joining project teams
Learning flexibility from different project leaders
Broadening knowledge in different functions (e.g. production, personnel,
operations. Etc.)
Skills to be learned on a project team
How to approch the project, how to communicate its objective
Where to acquire resources, how to put resources to best use
How to to liaise with other department, how to negotiate with clients, supplier
How to monitor performance, how to troubleshoot problem, achieve goals
Make projects as a way of learning more about other disciplines 12
Make friends with people in d/t dept, and get to know how they operate
DIRECTING FUNCTION
Leadership effectiveness
Mastering key leadership roles
Leadership is a multi-dimensional function, requiring knowledge &
understanding of many organizational needs
As a leader, you must master the various roles that are required to
handle d/t people & circumstances with skill & efficiency
A role is an expected or perceived set of activities or behaviors
stemming from one’s job
Leadership roles are subset of the managerial roles identified by
Henry Mintzberg (1973)-you can state them
What are the key roles?
Being expert: have in- depth understanding of your field
Being administrator: ensure smooth running of operations
Focusing on people: make your staff & their training a priority
Becoming a strategist: think long term & look to the future
Promoting change: use change as a key to progress & advancement 13
Varying leadership styles: use a range of skills & leadership styles
DIRECTING FUNCTION
Leadership effectiveness
Mastering key leadership rotes
Questions to ask yourself
Do I communicate directly with team & also with other departments
Am I sure that every member of the team understands his/her role fully?
Am I setting sufficiently ambitious goals?
Do I have procedures in place that allow me to check on team progress instantly?
Am I constantly looking for new ways to improve efficiency & productivity?
leadership influence followers
why do people accept the influence of a leader?
One major reason is that leader have power
Power is the capacity to affect the behavior of others (i.e., power is the ability to
influence the beliefs or actions of other persons )
There are five major type of power:
Legitimate power: the power a leader has a result of his/her position
Coercive power: the power a leader has to punish or control
Reward power: the power to give positive benefits or rewards
Expert power: the influence a leader can exert as a result of his/her expertise, skills,
or knowledge
Referent power: the power a leader that arise b/c of a person’s desirable resources 14 or
admired personal trait
DIRECTING FUNCTION
Theories of Leadership
Leadership does not take place in a vacuum
There are three important variables with which every leader must
deal (Ivancevich, 1999.p.408)
The people who are being led
The task that the people are performed
The environment in which the people & the task exist
B/c these three variables are different in every situation, what is
expected & needed from a leader will be different in every
situation
Consequently, there are multitude of leadership definitions based
on:
leader characteristics- traits or attributes
Leader behaviors- behavior exhibited
Leadership situation – situational variable (task, people, environment)
Outcome or end results – latest approaches to leadership 15
DIRECTING FUNCTION
The Evolution of leadership theory
Behavioral • 1960
theory
Situational • 1970-80
theory
Contemporary 1990 0n
theory ward
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DIRECTING FUNCTION
The Evolution of leadership theory
Trait theory (1920s-30s)
Focused on identifying personal characteristics/ traits that differentiated leaders
from non-leaders
Assumed that leaders shared certain inborn personality traits
View that some people are born leaders
Focused on what an effective leader is, not on how to effectively lead
Later research on the leadership process identified seven traits associated with
successful leadership
1. drive. Leaders exhibit a high effort level. They have a relatively high desire for
achievement: they are ambitious; the have lot of energy; they are tirelessly persistent in
their activities; and they show initiative
2. Desire to lead. Leaders have a strong desire to influence and lead others, they
demonstrate the willingness to take responsibility
3. Honesty and integrity. Leaders build trusting r/nship b/n themselves and followers by
being truthful or non-deceitful and by showing high consistency b/n word and deed
4. Self- confidence. Followers look to leaders for an absence of self-doubt. Leaders,
therefore, need to show self-confidence in order to convince followers of the rightness of
17
their goals and decisions.
DIRECTING FUNCTION
The Evolution of leadership theory
Trait theory (1920s-30s)
5. Intelligence. Leaders need to be intelligent enough to gather, synthesize, and
interpret large amounts of information, and they need to be able to create visions,
solve problems, and make correct decisions
6. Job –relevant knowledge. Effective leaders have a high degree of knowledge
about the company, industry, and technical matters. In-depth knowledge allows
leaders to make well informed decisions and to understand the implications of
those decisions.
7. Extraversion. Leaders are energetic. Lively people. They are sociable, assertive,
and rarely silent or withdrawn
Yet, trait theory does not make a judgment as to whether:
The traits are inherent to individuals
The traits can be developed through training & education
Two leaders are alike
A leader possesses all of the traits
Traits of leaders depend on the situation
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Therefore, it was unsuccessful
DIRECTING FUNCTION
The Evolution of leadership theory
Behavioral Theories
there are four behavior theories of leadership:
University of lowa studies
Ohio State university
University of Michigan
The managerial Grid
University of Lowa studies (kurt lewin)
Identifies three leadership styles:
Autocratic style: low participation, directing & centralized authority
Democratic style: involvement, delegation, high participation & feedback
Laissez-fair style: hands- off lenient management, group freedom to make
decisions
Research findings: mixed result
No specific style was consistently better for producing better performance
However, employees were more satisfied under democratic leader than
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autocratic leader
DIRECTING FUNCTION
The Evolution of leadership theory
Behavioral Theories
Ohio state studies
Identifies two dimensions of leader behavior
initiating structure: refers to defining the leader’s role & the
roles of group members
The emphasis is on achieving goals
Consideration: refers to the leader’s trust & respects for the group
members ideas & feelings
The emphasis is on employees welfare
Research findings: mixed results
High- high leaders generally achieved high group task performance
& satisfaction, but not always
Evidence indicated that situational factors appeared to strongly
20
influence leadership effectiveness
DIRECTING FUNCTION
The Evolution of leadership theory
Behavioral Theories
University of Michigan studies
Identifies two dimensions of leader behavior
employee oriented: emphasizing interpersonal
r/nships & taking care of employees needs
Production oriented: emphasizing task
accomplishment & technical aspect of the job
Research findings
Leaders who are employee oriented are strongly
associated with high group productivity & higher job
satisfaction
21
DIRECTING FUNCTION
The Evolution of leadership theory
Behavioral Theories
Managerial grid
Apprises leadership styles using two dimensions:
Concern for people: measured leaders concern for subordinates on a scale
of 1-9(low to high)
Concern for production: measured leaders concern for getting job done on
a scale of 1-9(low to high)
Places managerial styles in five categories:
Impoverished management(1,1): exerts of minimum efforts to get required
work done in appropriated to sustain organization
Middle-of-the-road management (5,5): adequate organization performance is
possible through balancing the necessary to get out work with maintaining Morale
of people at a satisfactory level
Country club management (1,9): thoughtful alteration to needs of people
for satisfying r/nships leads to comfortable. Friendly organization
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atmosphere &work tempo
DIRECTING FUNCTION
The Evolution of leadership theory
Behavioral Theories
Managerial grid.
Task management (9,1): efficiency in operation results from arranging
conditions of work in such away that human elements interfere to minimum
levels
Team management (9,9): work accomplishment is from commited people.
Interdependence through a concern of task in organization purpose leads to
r/ship of trust & respects 9 C D
Research findings: 8
7
Leaders performed 6
best with 9-9 style 5 E
Leader member Good Good Good Good Poor Poor Poor Poor
relation
Task structure
Position power Strong weak Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak
Selling
Participating
R elationsh ip Beh avior
S3 S2 Telling
Delegating S1
L ow
S4
Low high
Task Behavior
M4 M3 M2 M1
31
High low
Maturity of Followers
DIRECTING FUNCTION
The Evolution of leadership theory
Contingency theories
House’s path Goal Model
States that the leader’s job is to:
Assist his or her followers in attaining their goals
Provide direction or support to ensure their goals are compatible with
organizational goals
Leaders assume different leadership styles at different times depending on
the situation
House’s leadership style are:
Directive leader: tends to let subordinates know what is expected of
them
supportive leader: treats subordinates as equal
Participative leader: consults with subordinates & uses their suggestions
& ideas before reaching a direction
Achievement oriented leader: sets challenging goals, expected
subordinates to perform at the highest level, & continually 32seeks
DIRECTING FUNCTION
The Evolution of leadership theory
Contingency theories
House’s path Goal Model
The situational/ contingency variables are:
Environmental pressures/ demands & personals characteristics of
subordinates
Subordinate must cope with these in order to accomplish work goals &
derive satisfaction
The higher the degree of perceived ability relative to the task demands, the
les likely the subordinate is to accept a directive leader style
Individuals who have an internal locus of control (rewards are determined
by their efforts) are generally more satisfied with a participative style
Individuals who have an external locus of control (rewards are beyond
their personal control) are generally more satisfied with a directive style
The environmental variables can also motivate or constrain the
subordinates performance
According to theory, leader behavior will be motivational to the extent33that
it helps subordinates cope with environmental uncertainties
DIRECTING FUNCTION
Organizatio Task
nal culture understandin
& policy Behavior & g
expectation
of peers &
association 37
DIRECTING FUNCTION
The Evolution of leadership theory
Contemporary view on leadership
Transactional
Transformational
Charismatic
Visionary leadership
Team leadership
Leadership issues in the 21st century: an emerging paradigm
Developing credibility & trust
Ethical leadership
Empowering employees
Note: you have to refer appropriate source & comprehend
them
38
DIRECTING FUNCTION
Motivation Theories
Meaning of Motivation
Motivation is the set of processes that move a person toward a goal.
Thus, motivated behaviors are voluntary choices controlled by the
individual employee.
The supervisor (motivator) wants to influence the factors that
motivate employees to higher levels of productivity.
Motivation is to inspire people to work, individually or in groups in
the ways such as to produce best results. It is the will to act.
It is the willingness to exert high levels of effort towards
organizational goals, conditioned by the efforts and ability to satisfy
some individual need.
Motivation is getting somebody to do something because they want to
do it.
39
DIRECTING FUNCTION
Motivation Theories
Meaning of Motivation
It was once assumed that motivation had to be injected from outside,
but it is now understood that everyone is motivated by several
differing forces.
Factors that affect work motivation include individual differences,
job characteristics, and organizational practices.
Individual differences are the personal needs, values, and
attitudes, interests and abilities that people bring to their jobs.
Job characteristics are the aspects of the position that determine
its limitations and challenges.
Organizational practices are the rules, human resources policies,
managerial practices, and rewards systems of an organization.
Supervisors must consider how these factors interact to affect
employee job performance.
40
DIRECTING FUNCTION
Motivation Theories
Theories of Motivation
Two primary approaches to motivation are content and process.
Content Theories
The content approach emphasizes what motivates employees,
focuses on the assumption that individuals are motivated by the desire
to fulfill inner needs.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
It identifies five levels of needs, which are best seen as a hierarchy
with the most basic need emerging first and the most sophisticated
need last.
People move up the hierarchy one level at a time. Gratified needs lose
their strength and the next level of needs is activated. As basic or
lower-level needs are satisfied, higher-level needs become operative.
41
DIRECTING FUNCTION
Theories of Motivation
Content Theories
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
A satisfied need is not a motivator. The most powerful employee need is
the one that has not been satisfied.
Level I - Physiological needs are the most basic human needs. They
include food, water, shelter and comfort.
The organization helps to satisfy employees' physiological needs by
a paycheck.
Level II - Safety needs are the desires for security and stability, to feel
safe from harm.
The organization helps to satisfy employees' safety needs by
benefits.
Level III - Social needs are the desires for affiliation. They include
friendship and belonging.
The organization helps to satisfy employees' social needs through sports 42
teams, parties, and celebrations..
DIRECTING FUNCTION
Theories of Motivation
Content Theories
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Level IV - Esteem needs are the desires for self-respect and respect
or recognition from others.
The organization helps to satisfy employees' esteem needs by
matching the skills and abilities of the employee to the job.
Level V - Self-actualization needs are the desires for self-fulfillment
and the realization of the individual's full potential.
The supervisor can help fulfill self-actualization needs by
assigning tasks that challenge employees' minds while drawing on
their aptitude and training
43
DIRECTING FUNCTION
Theories of Motivation
Content Theories
Alderfer's ERG
identified three categories of needs.
Existence needs are the desires for material and physical well being.
These needs are satisfied with food, water, air, shelter, working conditions,
pay, and fringe benefits.
Relatedness needs are the desires to establish and maintain interpersonal
relationships.
These needs are satisfied with relationships with family, friends,
supervisors, subordinates, and co-workers.
Growth needs are the desires to be creative, to make useful and productive
contributions and to have opportunities for personal development.
The major conclusions of this theory are:
In an individual, more than one need may be operative at the same time.
If a higher need goes unsatisfied then the desire to satisfy a lower need
intensifies.
It also contains the frustration-regression dimension. 44
DIRECTING FUNCTION
Theories of Motivation
Content Theories
McClelland's Learned Needs
Achievement: motivated people thrive on pursuing and attaining goals.
High-need achievers possess these characteristics:
1. High-need achievers have a strong desire to assume personal responsibility
for performing a task or finding a solution to a problem
2. High-need achievers tend to set moderately difficult goals and take
calculated risks.
3. High-need achievers have a strong desire for performance feedback.
Power: motivated individuals see almost every situation as an opportunity
to seize control or dominate others. characteristics:
1. A desire to influence and direct somebody else.
2. A desire to exercise control over others.
3. A concern for maintaining leader-follower relations.
45
DIRECTING FUNCTION
Theories of Motivation
Content Theories
McClelland's Learned Needs
Affiliation motivated people are usually friendly and like to socialize with
others. characteristics:
1. 1. They have a strong desire for approval and reassurance from others.
2. 2. They have a tendency to conform to the wishes and norms of others when
they are pressured by people whose friendships they value.
3. 3. They have a sincere interest in the feelings of others
Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory
describes needs in terms of satisfaction and dissatisfaction.
Satisfaction comes from motivators that are intrinsic or job content, such as:
achievement
recognition
advancement
responsibility
the work itself
growth possibilities 46
DIRECTING FUNCTION
Theories of Motivation
Content Theories
Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory
Dissatisfaction occurs when the following hygiene factors,
extrinsic or job context, maintenance factors are not present on
the job and include:
pay
status
job security
working conditions
company policy
peer relations
supervision
47
DIRECTING FUNCTION
Theories of Motivation
Content Theories
Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory
Absence Presence
48
DIRECTING FUNCTION
Theories of Motivation
Content Theories
49
DIRECTING FUNCTION
Theories of Motivation
Content Theories
Theory X and Theory Y of Douglas McGregor :
Under the assumptions of theory X :
Employees inherently do not like work and whenever possible, will
attempt to avoid it.
Because employees dislike work, they have to be forced, coerced or
threatened with punishment to achieve goals.
Employees avoid responsibilities and do not work till formal directions
are issued.
Most workers place a greater importance on security over all other factors
and display little ambition.
under the assumptions of theory Y:
Physical and mental effort at work is as natural as rest or play.
People do exercise self-control and self-direction and if they are
committed to those goals. 50
DIRECTING FUNCTION
Theories of Motivation
Content Theories
Theory X and Theory Y of Douglas McGregor
Theory Z
Theory Z companies have the following characteristics:
• Career paths wander around the firm across functions and hierarchies.
People in Theory Z firms possess great understanding of the total firm.
• Decisions include a component of “suitability” and “corporate fit.”
Organizational life is a life of interdependence. Each person relies on
others in the firm.
• Decisions result from a participative process.
• Extensive energy is expended to develop the interpersonal skills
necessary for effective group decision making.
• People deal with people in the organization rather than one position to
another. 51
DIRECTING FUNCTION
Theories of Motivation
Content Theories
Theory X and Theory Y of Douglas McGregor
Theory Z
People in Theory Z firms operate as clans. Individual performance is not as
important as group and team performance.
Long-term employment and job security
Collective responsibility
Implicit, informal control with explicit, formalized measures
Collective decision-making
Slow evaluation and promotion
Moderately specialized careers
Concern for a total person, including their family
Theory Z firms understand the innate desire of people for variation in life.
Work assignments create variety by allowing people to work in different
departments and perform different tasks.
Theory Z firms understand the paradox of gaining more by not working for
profit alone. Rather, they work to see employees share in the wealth. The 52
result is higher returns for longer periods of time.
DIRECTING FUNCTION
Theories of Motivation
Process Theories
The process approach emphasizes how and why people choose certain
behaviors in order to meet their personal goals.
Process theories focus on external influences or behaviors that people choose to
meet their needs.
Vroom's Expectancy Model
The theory argues that the strength of a tendency to act in a specific way
depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a
given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.
Expectancy theory says that an employee can be motivated to perform better
when there is a belief that the better performance will lead to good performance
appraisal and that this shall result into realization of personal goal in form of
some reward.
Vroom’s Expectancy Theory states that behavior is a result of:
(1) the importance of a reward,
(2) the extent that the behavior will result in the reward, and 53
(3) the likelihood that the reward will materialize.
DIRECTING FUNCTION
Theories of Motivation
Process Theories
Vroom's Expectancy Model
Vroom uses the terms valence, instrumentality and expectancy to
describe his theory. Many people refer to his theory as the VIE Theory.
Motivation = Valence x Expectancy.
The theory focuses on three things:
Efforts and performance relationship (expectancy).
Performance and reward relationship (instrumentality).
Rewards and personal goal relationship (valence).
Expectancy is the belief that efforts are linked to performance.
Expectancy is the probability that a particular action will lead to the
outcome.
Expectancy is different from instrumentality in that it relates efforts to
the first-level outcomes whereas instrumentality relates first and second
level-outcomes to each other.. 54
DIRECTING FUNCTION
Theories of Motivation
Process Theories
Vroom's Expectancy Model
Instrumentality is a person’s perception about the extent to which
performance at a certain level will result in the attainment of outcomes.
Instrumentality is, in short, the belief that performance is related to
first rewards.
Valence is the importance placed upon the reward. It refers to how
desirable each of the out comes available from a job or organization is to
a person.
Valence refers to the attractiveness of a reward - how important the
reward is to someone.
It also refers to the level of satisfaction that an individual expects
from a reward rather than the actual value derived.
It means the strength of an individual’s preference to a particular
outcome. 55
DIRECTING FUNCTION
Theories of Motivation
Process Theories
Vroom's Expectancy Model
Instrument
Expectancy
alities
2nd level
Motivation outcome
First level outcomes
s
Outcome1 a
Outcome 1 Outcome1b
Outcome2a
Outcome 2
Outcome 2b
56
DIRECTING FUNCTION
Theories of Motivation
Process Theories
Fishbein’s Theory of Reasoned Action
Fishbein modified Vroom’s model to allow for the expectations of others
as one factor influencing individual motivation.
The model allows for a quantification of this by summing the beliefs times
the value of each outcome. This first quantitative result represents the
individuals weighted difference toward the behavior.
The model then includes an evaluation by the individual as to what various
referent people, or groups of people, feel toward the individual performing
the behavior.
Role expectations, role conflicts and role ambiguity play a significant
part in this model. Each individual has a sense of his or her intent to
comply with what the referents desire.
This may range from an absolute intent to comply with an absolute intent
to rebel and not perform the behavior regardless of the outcome (hence the
old adage of "cutting off your nose to spite your face"). 57
DIRECTING FUNCTION
Theories of Motivation
Process Theories
Fishbein’s Theory of Reasoned Action
The second quantitative value is derived by summing all of the
referent values times the motivation to comply. The summed value
yields a measure of the pressure to perform the behavior, or what
we call peer pressure.
The third quantitative measure is a product of multiplying the first
two. The value derived is a relative weighted value of the
importance of the behavior to the individual and the impact of
referent pressure to comply.
The concern with the model is that no two people will weight a
behavior the same or allocate a similar value to the beliefs of the
referent group. This results in each individual having to self-report
their quantitative scores. 58
DIRECTING FUNCTION
Theories of Motivation
Process Theories
Porter-Lawler’s theory of motivation
Porter and Lawler suggest that employee effort is jointly determined by
two key factors:
the value placed on certain outcomes by the individual, and
the degree to which the person believes that his effort will lead to
the attainment of these rewards.
Porter and Lawler use satisfaction in their model. Satisfaction raises
several interesting thoughts regarding managers’ motivation of
employees.
We define “satisfaction” as needs being met. Think about it, if needs are
met, what is the purpose of behavior?
I recall many times that employees, reporting to me, were in states of
great happiness or satisfaction (rarely caused by me, unfortunately) and
they did not work during these states of euphoria. Rather, they shared
59
thoughts, expressions and engaged in bonding-type behavior.
DIRECTING FUNCTION
Theories of Motivation
Process Theories
Porter-Lawler’s theory of motivation
dissatisfaction causes behavior to achieve equilibrium, the issue is
what type of dissatisfaction do you want to create in your
employees and to what degree?
Too much dissatisfaction causes employees to give up and quit.
Transformational leaders establish dissatisfaction with the status
quo of the firm.
Transformational leaders describe an institutional-state to which
employees should aspire.
Thus, employee performance behavior focuses on reaching the
new organizational goal.
60
DIRECTING FUNCTION
Theories of Motivation
Process Theories
Porter-Lawler’s theory of motivation
61
DIRECTING FUNCTION
Theories of Motivation
Process Theories
Equity Theory
Equity is the perception of fairness involved in rewards given. A fair or
equitable situation is one in which people with similar inputs experience
similar outcomes.
Employees will compare their rewards with the rewards received by others
for their efforts. If employees perceive that an inequity exists, they are
likely to withhold some of their contributions, either consciously or
unconsciously, to bring a situation into better balance.
While equity theory was originally concerned with differences in pay, it
may be applied to other forms of tangible and intangible rewards in the
workplace.
That is, if any input is not balanced with some fair output, the motivation
process will be difficult. Supervisors must manage the perception of
fairness in the mind of each employee.
If subordinates think they are not being treated fairly, it is difficult to 62
motivate them.
DIRECTING FUNCTION
Theories of Motivation
Process Theories
Equity Theory
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DIRECTING FUNCTION
Theories of Motivation
Process Theories
Equity Theory
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DIRECTING FUNCTION
Theories of Motivation
Process Theories
Reinforcement Theory
The reinforcement theory, based on E. L. Thorndike’s law of effect,
simply looks at the relationship between behavior and its consequences.
Positive reinforcement rewards desirable behavior. Positive
reinforcement, such as a pay raise or promotion, is provided as a reward
for positive behavior with the intention of increasing the probability that
the desired behavior will be repeated.
Negative reinforcement occurs when a person engages in behavior to
avoid unpleasant consequences or to escape from existing unpleasant
consequences.
Punishment is an attempt to discourage a target behavior by the
application of negative outcomes whenever it is possible. Punishment
(threats, docking pay, suspension) is an attempt to decrease the
likelihood of a behavior recurring by applying negative consequences.
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DIRECTING FUNCTION
Theories of Motivation
Process Theories
Reinforcement Theory
The reinforcement theory has the following implications for management:
Learning what is acceptable to the organization influences
motivated behavior.
Managers who are trying to motivate their employees should be
sure to tell individuals what they are doing wrong and be careful
not to reward all individuals at the same time.
Managers must tell individuals what they can do to receive positive
reinforcement.
Managers must be sure to administer the reinforcement as closely
as possible to the occurrence of the behavior.
Managers must recognize that failure to reward can also modify
behavior. Employees who believe that they deserve a reward and do
not receive it will often become disenchanted with both their 66
manager and company.
DIRECTING FUNCTION
Theories of Motivation
Process Theories
Reinforcement Theory
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DIRECTING FUNCTION
Theories of Motivation
Process Theories
Hackman’s Job Design Theory
Five core job dimensions create three critical psychological states that, in turn,
lead to a number of beneficial personal and work outcomes.
The five job dimensions are:
Skill variety: the degree to which a job requires a variety of different activities
that involve the use of a number of different skills and talents.
Task identity: the degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and
identifiable piece of work -that is, doing a job from beginning to end with a
visible outcome.
Task significance: the degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the
lives or work of other people, whether in the immediate organization or in the
external environment.
Autonomy: the degree to which the job provides substantial freedom,
independence, and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in
determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out.
Feedback: the knowledge of how well the results match the expectation. 68
Information necessary for correction should also occur in feedback .
DIRECTING FUNCTION
Theories of Motivation
Process Theories
Hackman’s Job Design Theory
The psychological states as shown in the model are:
Experienced meaningfulness: The person must experience the work as
generally important, valuable, and worthwhile.
Experienced responsibility: The individual must feel personally responsible
and accountable for the results of the work he performs.
Knowledge of results: The individual must have an understanding, on a fairly
regular basis, of how effectively he is performing the job.
When changing jobs, consider:
Combining tasks to increase the breadth and totality of the job.
Opening, or broadening, channels for feedback of work quality
and acceptability to others inside and outside of the firm.
Establishing client relationships.
Giving more control of the work to the employee.
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DIRECTING FUNCTION
Theories of Motivation
Process Theories
Hackman’s Job Design Theory
Skill variety
Task identity
Task significance Experienced meaningfulness of the work high internal work motivation
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DIRECTING FUNCTION
Theories of Motivation
Process Theories
Jeremy Bentham’s “The Carrot and the Stick Approach” :
Bentham’s view was that all people are self-interested and are motivated by the desire to
avoid pain and find pleasure. Any worker will work only if the reward is big enough, or the
punishment sufficiently unpleasant.
This view - the ‘carrot and stick’ approach - was built into the philosophies of the age and
is still to be found, especially in the older, more traditional sectors of industry.
The various leading theories of motivation and motivators seldom make reference to the
carrot and the stick. This metaphor relates, of course, to the use of rewards and penalties in
order to induce desired behavior.
It comes from the old story that to make a donkey move, one must put a carrot in front of
him or dab him with a stick from behind..
The trouble with the money ‘carrot’ approach is that too often everyone gets a carrot,
regardless of performance through such practices as salary increase and promotion by
seniority, automatic ‘merit’ increases, and executive bonuses not based on individual
manager performance
The ‘stick’, in the form of fear–fear of loss of job, loss of income, reduction of bonus,
demotion, or some other penalty–has been and continues to be a strong motivator. Yet it is
admittedly not the best kind. 71
DIRECTING FUNCTION
Communication
There is no agreeable single definition for communication but a number of scholars define
it in the following manner.
Communication is the transfer of information from the sender to receiver, with the
information being understood by the receiver.
Communication is the process by which information is transmitted between individuals
and organizations so that an understanding response results.
Communication is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or emotions by two or more
people.
Business communication is a process which involves the transmission and accurate
replication of ideas ensured by feedback for the purpose of eliciting actions which will
accomplish organizational goals.
Communication is the exchange of messages in writing, speaking or images.
Communication is sharing information of providing entertainment through works or
speech or other methods.
Communication is the process whereby one person transmits a message through a
channel to another person, with some effect.
Communication is an intercourse by words, letters, symbols or messages and is a way
that one organization member shares meaning and understanding with another
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DIRECTING FUNCTION
Communication
The Communication Process
The major variables in the communication process include:
Stimulus and motivation.
Encoding
Choosing media/channel
Decoding
Feedback
Characteristics of Communication
The following are some of the characteristics of communication
Communication is a process.
Communication is symbolic-gestures, sounds, letters, numbers and words
represent an idea meant to communicate.
Communication is contextual-the meaning may vary depending on contexts
Communication is purposive- it is done to share meaning, to impart information or
influence.
Communication is two way
Communication involves people. 73
DIRECTING FUNCTION
Communication
Types of Communication
Formal and Informal Communication
Formal Communication
Vertical communication
Downward communication
Upward communication-
Horizontal communication.
Diagonal communication
Informal communication
Barriers to Effective Communication
Differing perceptions
Language differences:
Emotionality
Inconsistent Verbal and Nonverbal Communication
Distrust:
Filtering:
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DIRECTING FUNCTION
Communication
Overcoming Barriers to Communication
Overcoming differing perception-The message should be explained so that it can be
understood by those with different views and experiences.
Overcoming differences in language-The meanings of unconventional or technical
terms should be explained; single, direct and natural language should be used.
Overcoming noise-Noise is best dealt with by eliminating it. As a whole it is good to
avoid distracting environments. When noise is unavoidable, increase the clarity and
strength of the message.
Overcoming emotionality-Before a crisis, try to understand your subordinate‘s
emotional reactions and prepare yourself to deal with receivers. Also think about your
own moods and how they influence others. 137
Overcoming inconsistent verbal and nonverbal communication-Gestures, clothes,
posture, facial expression and other powerful nonverbal communications should agree
with the message.
Overcoming distrust-Overcoming distrust is to a large extent the process of creating
trust.
Redundancy-Being redundant purposefully might be necessary. Repeating or restating a
message ensures its perception or reinforces its impact.
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