Instruments and and Avionic System

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology
Instruments
A device for measuring, recording, or controlling, especially such a

device functioning as part of a control system.
Aircraft Instruments can be referred as gauges, indicators or tools.

Instruments are used as a communicator, ie; to display to pilot the
value/quantity or a situation/position of a system.
Its should be located so that they can be easily views by flight crew
members.
Illumination of instruments should be provided for night flying and its
should not glared the pilot’s vision.
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Categories according to presentation

Instruments are categorized according to either how they work
or what kinds of information they provides.
Application or presentation are divided in 3 groups:
Flight and Navigational Instruments
Provide information concerning Speed, Altitude, Attitude, Heading,
Rate of Climb etc.
– Eg: Air Speed Indicator, Compass, Altimeter, Artificial Horizon,
Vertical Speed Indicator, Turn and Slip Indicator, Clock, etc
Engine Instruments
Provide information concerning
Malaysian Institute of the operation
Aviation of the engines and
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power plant systems.
– Eg: Engine Speed, EPR, Manifold Pressure, EGT, etc
Systems Instruments
Provide information concerning aircraft systems such as hydraulic,
electrical, pressurization etc.
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Categories according to means of operation
They are group by how they are operated.

Pressure instruments
– These measure the pressure of air, fuel, oil etc.
Mechanical instruments
– These use a mechanical system to obtain and/or transmit
information.
Gyro instruments
– These use the principles of a gyroscope and are primarily used to
displays attitude and heading of aircraft.
Electrical and electronic instruments
– This group uses wires or fiber optic and digital technique to sense
and transmit information for display and warning.
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Panels and Layout

Purpose is to allow aircraft
instruments to be mounted or
installed.
Type of Instrument Panels
Basic 6 Panel
It consists of six instruments mounted
on a panel. Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology
– Air Speed Indicator
– Attitude Indicator
– Vertical Speed Indicator
– Altimeter
– Heading
– Turn and Slip Indicator 4
Panels and Layout
Basic ‘T’ Panel

It consists of four instrument, mounted
in the shape of ‘T’ arrangement.
– Airspeed Indicator
– Attitude Indicator
– Altimeter
– Heading
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Basic 6 and Basic T
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Basic T arrangement
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Basic T arrangement
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Instrument Panel
P1, P2, P3 Instrument Panel
The concept of P1, P2, P3
instrument panel as follows;
P1 - is used to mount flight and

navigational instruments for the
aircraft captain to view the
display.
P2 - is used to mount Engine
Instruments for the capt and
Malaysian first of Aviation Technology
Institute
officer to view the display.
P3 - is used to mount Flt and
Nav instruments for the first
officer to view the display.
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Instrument Panel
Electronic/Glass Cockpit Panel

Consists of six interchangeable Integrated Display Unit
which is a cathode ray tube (CRT).
EADI
– displays Primary Flight Display (PFD)
EHSI Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology
– displays Navigational Display (ND)

EICAS
– displays primary and secondary engine parameters and
systems Warnings.
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Glass Cockpit
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Instrument Panel
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Pressure
Pressure is defined as the force per area:
or
FORCE = PRESSURE X AREA
May be measured directly by:

 Balancing it against thatInstitute
Malaysian produced by aTechnology
of Aviation column of liquid of known
density.
– Mercury barometer
 Balancing it against a known weight.
– Dead weight tester
 By the strain it produces in an elastic pressure-sensing elements.
– Bourdon tube, diaphragm, capsule and bellow
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Atmospheric Pressure
Earth's atmosphere is the layer of air (gases)
surrounding the earth and retained by the earth's
gravity.
Air in contact with the earth is heated by conduction
and radiation, and as a result its density decreases
as the air starts rising. This will make the pressure
drop allows the air to expand, and this in turn
causes a fall in temperature.
Lapse Rate
– The falls in temperature steadily with increasing height up
to the tropopause.
Earth’s atmosphere is divided into layers.
– Lowest – Troposphere (0 ft – 36,090 ft)
– Middle – Stratosphere (36,090 ft – 105,000 ft)
– Upper – Chemosphere, ozonosphere, ionosphere and
exosphere.
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Above 100,000ft
– Press 0 psi
37,000 ft
– Press 6.39 in Hg
– Temp – 56.5°C
30,000 ft
– Temp – 44.4°C
10,000 ft
– Tem p - 4.8°C
5,000 ft
– Temp 5°C
Sea Level (0 ft)
Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology Press 29.92 in Hg
Press 1013.2 Mb
Press 14.7 psi
Temp 15°C
 Minus 1,000 ft
Press 31.01 in Hg
Temp 16.98°C
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Pressure
Types of Pressure
Atmospheric pressure
– pressure exerted by the weight of the air (Force of gravity).
– Atmospheric pressure at MSL = 14.7 PSI, 1013.25mb or 29.921 in Hg.
– Atmospheric pressure will decrease with increase in altitude.
Absolute Pressure
– pressure measured withInstitute
Malaysian reference to a vacuum
of Aviation or zero pressure.
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– A mercury barometer and an altimeter are absolute pressure gauge.
– An aneroid capsule measures absolute pressure.
– Absolute pressure = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure.
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Pressure
Gauge Pressure
– Pressure measured from the existing (relative to) atmospheric
pressure.
– Gauge Pressure = Absolute Pressure - Atmospheric Pressure
Differential Pressure
– The difference in pressure between two points of a system.
– An airspeed indicator is a differential pressure gauge.
Dynamic Pressure
– Pressure resulted from its motion. (Aerodynamic force acting on the
aircraft surfaces).
– Q = ½ ρV²
– (Q - Dynamic Pressure, ρ (rho) - density of air, V – velocity of aircraft)
Pitot Pressure
– Pressure which is collected in a pitot tube or pressure head.
Static Pressure
– Ambient pressure collected by a static ports or vent. 22
Measuring Elements
Detecting Element
– which detect any changes in pressure. ie: Pressure head, static port.
Measuring Element
– measures changes in pressure
– material used is either phosphor-bronze, beryllium-bronze or beryllium-
copper
– Capsule – Low pressure (Max 14.7psi)
– Diaphragm – Low pressure (Max 14.7psi)
– Bellow – Med pressure (Max 600psi)
– Bourdon Tube – High pressure (Max 3,000psi)
Coupling Element
– which couples (joint) the measuring element to the indicating element.
– Mechanical Coupling
– Magnetic Coupling
– Fluid Coupling
Indicating Element
– measures the value of the transmitted quantity using a pointer or index
rotating over a scale graduated in feet, knots, gallon, rpm etc.
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Elements of Pressure Measuring Instrument
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Pitot Head
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Static Ports
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Atmospheric Measurement
Mercury Barometer
A mercury filled tube inverted in a
bowl of mercury.
The amount of pressure exerted
by the weight of air will make the
mercury rises up in the tube.
The height of mercury is measured
in inches which represent the
atmospheric pressure.
Its measure absolute pressure.
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Differential Pressure Measurement

Diaphragm
A sheet of a semi-flexible material
anchored at its periphery.
– The sheet is corrugated is to permit
larger deflection.
Made of beryllium and copper.
Arranged so as to expose one
side to the pressure being
measured.
The deflections being transmitted
to pointer mechanism.
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Absolute Pressure Measurement

Capsule
Made of two diaphragms placed together
and joined at their edges to form a
chamber which may be completely
sealed or open to pressure source.
Aneroid Capsule
An enclosed chamber made of beryllium
and copper.
Inside the chamber is vacuum or zero
pressure.
A decrease in ambient pressure will
make the capsule expand and an
increase in pressure makes the capsule
contract. 29
It is use for measuring absolute pressure.
Differential Pressure Measurement

Bellows
Extension of the corrugated
diaphragm principle.
In operation it bears some
resemblance to a helical
compression spring.
Made of beryllium and copper.
Diaphragm and capsule 30

Bourdon Tube
Bourdon Tube
 For high pressure
measurement.
 Consist of elliptical cross-
sectioned tube bent a curve or
spiral.
 When pressure is applied, the
tube attempts to straighten.
 The amount of Malaysian
the tube
Institute of Aviation Technology
straightens is proportional to
the amount of pressure inside
the tube.
 A choke or restrictor is fitted to
the inlet to prevent surge
pressures damaging the tube. 31
Engine Pressure Ratio (EPR)

It’s provides an indication of the thrust output of turbine engines.
It’s measures the ratio between the pressures at the compressor intake
(PT2) and the turbine outlet or exhaust (PT7). i.e: (PT7/PT2)
Scale calibrated in number 1.1 to 2.5 (changes in pressure ratio).
Principle of operation
– Measure differential pressure.
– EPR system uses measuring element such as diaphragm or bellow.
Pressure is taken from the inlet and exhaust of jet engine.
The different pressure offset the bellow.
The bellow will rotate the rotor of the autosyn, synchro or magnesyn
transmitter.
The unbalance receiver stator field will rotate the rotor which carry the
pointer across the scale.
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EPR
Indicator are calibrated
in number.
If EPR indicates 2.4, its
mean exhaust pressure is
2.4 times greater than
intake pressure.
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Altimeter
PURPOSE
To indicate vertical distance
from MSL (Mean Sea Level)
or AGL (Above Ground Level)
from minus 1,000 feet to
50,000 feet.
To indicate pressure altitude
when BaroscaleMalaysian
is set Institute
to of Aviation Technology
QNE (ICAO standard

atmospheric pressure at
Mean Sea Level)
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PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
An altimeter measures air pressure, which decreases with
increasing altitude, and from the pressure calculates and
displays the corresponding altitude.
It follows the aneroid barometric principle – to measure
absolute pressure (total pressure).
Construction
A detecting element to collect static pressure.
A measuring element
Malaysianwhich
Institute is the aneroid
of Aviation capsule.
Technology
Mechanical coupling.
An indicating element which is a pointer rotating over a
scale.
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Types of Altimeter
Non-sensitive Altimeter
– single pointer/one capsule.
Sensitive Altimeter Cabin Altimeter
– multiple pointers/stack Non-Sensitive Altimeter
aneroid capsules.
Cabin Altimeter
– to measure cabin pressure.
Encoding Altimeter
– for ATC purposes.
Servo Altimeter
– to overcome lag error/more
Encoding Altimeter
accurate.
Sensitive Altimeter
Radio/Radar Altimeter
– measure vertical distance
Above Ground Level (AGL)
Radio/Radar Altimeter
– used in GPWS and
autopilot.
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Encoding Altimeter
Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System
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Mode S Operation
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Encoder Altimeter
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Servo Altimeter
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Radar Altimeter Transmitter/Receiver
Uses antenna installed

on aircraft belly.
Transmitter sends out
radio waves at 4.3GHz
which strike the earth
and bounce back to the
receiver antenna.
The system measures
time taken for the wave
to return back and
calculation is made of
AGL altitude.
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Above 100,000ft
– Press 0 psi
37,000 ft
– Temp – 56.5°C
30,000 ft
– Temp – 44.4°C
10,000 ft
– Tem p - 4.8°C
5,000 ft
– Temp 5°C
Sea Level (0 ft)
Press 29.92 in Hg
Press 1013.2 Mb
Press 14.7 psi
Temp 15°C
 Minus 1,000 ft
Press 31.01 in Hg
Temp 16.98°C 46
Types of Altitude Measurement

ALTITUDE
The vertical distance of an aircraft measured from mean sea level (MSL).
PRESSURE ALTITUDE
When altimeter is set to Standard Mean Sea Level (ICAO) on the barometric
window.
When an aircraft altimeter is set at this pressure setting, it is flying at Flight Level.
INDICATED ALTITUDE
Direct reading of altitude from altimeter when barometric window setting is not
set to standard MSL (ICAO).
ABSOLUTE ALTITUDE
It is measured by radio, radar, or laser altimeter.
It measured altitude Malaysian
above ground level
Institute of (AGL).
Aviation Technology
DENSITY ALTITUDE
It is the pressure altitude corrected for non-standard temperature.
HEIGHT
Vertical distance of an aircraft from a reference plane (datum).
DATUM
A reference line, from which calculations or measurements are taken.
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Q-Code
The Q code is a telecommunication code. The codes in the
range QAA – QZZ (QAA-QNZ are for aeronautical use).
QFE
Setting aerodrome atmospheric pressure so that an altimeter
reads zero on landing and take-off.
QNH
Setting Mean Sea Level atmospheric pressure so that an
altimeter reads Malaysian
the aerodrome altitude
Institute of Aviation above Mean Sea Level.
Technology
QNE
Setting standard Mean Sea Level atmospheric pressure IAW
the ICAO standard atmosphere, i.e. 1013.25 mb or 29.92 in
Hg and altimeter will reads pressure altitude.
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Density Altitude
An aircraft altimeter measures only air pressure, nothing
else. If the air pressure changes, due to temperature or
humidity, then an aircraft altimeter will of course change to
indicate the actual air pressure. Nonetheless, the aircraft
altimeter is simply measuring air pressure.
As odd as it may seem, an aircraft altimeter does not
actually measure altitude, it only measures pressure.
Hence, the name "pressure altitude" is properly applied to
any aircraft altimeter
Malaysianreading.
So, the basic idea of calculating density altitude is to

calculate the actual density of the air, and then find the
altitude at which that same air density occurs in the
Standard Atmosphere.
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Error in Altimeter
Instrument error
– due to mechanical imperfection during manufacturing.
Position error
– due to incorrect location of pressure source.
Blockage error
– pitot static piping error.
Lag error
– instrument reading responds
Malaysian Institute slower
of Aviation than the actual
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altitude of the aircraft.

Stiction error
– pointer sticking to the dial due to electrostatic effect.
– (Friction that tends to prevent relative motion between two movable parts at
their null position.) 52
Error in Altimeter
During ‘calibration check’ in the shop these test are to be complied for
IFR flying and any error to be recorded in the altimeter correction card at
thousand-foot interval.
Scale error
– altimeter must follow reading from master indicator or manometer.
Hysteresis
– reading must agree when altitude is in increasing or decreasing.
After effect
– indication must return to original reading after performing test.
Friction
– reading taken before and after being vibrate.
Case leak
– test at 18,000 feet should not leak within tolerance.
Barometric scale error
– indication from barometric scale and altimeter reading must tally with
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ICAO pressure table.
Airspeed Indicator (ASI)

Purpose:
to indicate the speed of the aircraft relative to the airflow.
to indicate the aerodynamic force acting on the aircraft surface.
uses a differential capsule to measure different in pitot and static
pressure.
Construction
two detector units which senses pitot and static pressure.
a differential capsule as a measuring unit.
a mechanical coupling.
an indicating element which is a pointer rotating over a scale graduated
in knots.
– 1 knot = 1.1 miles.
A mechanical airspeed indicator has one differential capsule.
A sensitive airspeed indicator has more than one differential capsule.
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Airspeed Indicator (ASI)
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Air Speed Indicator

PITOT PRESSURE = DYNAMIC PRESSURE + STATIC PRESSURE
Dynamic pressure is representative of airspeed, so:
DYNAMIC PRESSURE = PITOT PRESSURE - STATIC PRESSURE
Square Law Compensator
A device that will compensates the non-linear deflection of the
capsule when magnify to the pointer become linear.
It will represent linear scale on the ASI.
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Errors of ASI
Instrument error
– due to imperfection of the instrument mechanism during
manufacturing.
Position Error
– incorrect position of pressure sources.
– measured by trial and error and wind tunnel.
Compressibility Error
– results from air being compressed in the pitot tube inlet,
generally at Malaysian
altitudes Institute of Aviation Technology
above 10,000 feet and CAS in
excess of 200 knots.
– It generally produces IAS readings that are too high.
Density Error
– due to decrease in the density of air as altitude increases.
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Reading of ASI
ASIR (Airspeed Indicator Reading)

– reading not corrected for any error.
IAS (Indicated Airspeed)
– ASI corrected for Instrument error only.
RAS (Rectified Airspeed)
– IAS corrected for instrument and pressure errors.
CAS (Calibrated Airspeed)
– RAS compensated for non-linear (Square law)
EAS (Equivalent Airspeed)
– RAS corrected for compressibility error.
TAS (True Airspeed)
– EAS corrected for temperature and density error.
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True Airspeed
Airspeed indicator with temperature and density compensator
will give a True Airspeed (TAS) reading.
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True Airspeed
To get true airspeed on an ASI
without temperature and
pressure compensator, a
correction scale is provided.
 The dial on the airspeed
indicator can be rotated to find a
true airspeed reading.
 When the air temperature is
lined up with the pressure
attitude, the true airspeed can
be read from the outside scale.
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Maximum Allowable Airspeed Indicator

 Aircraft maximum speed that are limited by structural consideration
have their Vne marked by range marking ie RED RADIAL LINE.
 Aircraft maximum speed that is limited by critical mach number the

RED RADIAL LINE is replaced by RED/WHITE pointer or BARBER
POLE driven by an altimeter capsule.
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Machmeter
Installed onboard high-performance aircraft, indicate the
ratio of aircraft speed to the speed of sound at the
particular altitude and temperature existing at any time
during flight.
To indicate to pilot the mach number of the aircraft i.e: the max
allowable speed of the aircraft at that altitude.
Mach number = TAS/Speed of Sound
Sonic speed = 660 knot or 760 mph at sea level
A combination of altimeter mechanism and airspeed mechanism.
It uses aneroid capsule to measure altitude and differential capsule to
measure changes in pitot and static pressure.
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Machmeter
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Combine Mach Airspeed Indicator

Use in subsonic aircraft to provide
airspeed, mach, and maximum
allowable airspeed indications in a
single instrument.
It is made up of a machmeter and
an airspeed mechanism.
It provides the pilot with:
– IAS (Indicated Airspeed)
– Vmo (Velocity maximum
operating)
– Mmo (Mach maximum
operating)
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Combine Mach Airspeed Indicator

In operation, the airspeed measuring and
indicating elements respond to the
difference between pitot and static and will
gives the airspeed reading.
As altitude increases, mach number will
increase and rotates the mach scale anti-
clockwise.
When limiting speed is reached, the mach
scale will make contact with
Malaysian the V of
Institute mo
Aviation Technology
pointer.
This will make the V mo pointer rotate anti-
clockwise, to lower the max speed
operating.
68
Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)

It is also called Rate Of Climb (ROC)
Indicator.
 Purpose:
– To indicate to the pilot the vertical
speed of the aircraft or rate of climb
or dive of an aircraft in feet per
minute.
 Principle of operation
– It measures the rate at which the
static pressure changes.
 Construction
– A metering unitMalaysian Institute of Aviation Technology
– to established
second pressure.
– A differential capsule – sense
pressure changes.
– An indicating element using pointer
which rotates over a scale graduated
in feet per minute.
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At level flight
Prevailing static pressure is admitted to the
interior of the capsule, and also to the
instrument case through the metering unit.
There is zero differential across the
capsule and pointer indicates zero.
When aircraft descending
Metering unit maintains case pressure
lower than capsule pressure, changing it at
the same rate and thereby creating a
constant differential pressure
Malaysian across
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of Aviation Technology
capsule.
When aircraft climb
Metering unit creates a constant differential
pressure across capsule by maintaining
case pressure higher than capsule 70
pressure.
Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator (IVSI)

It is also called Inertia Operated VSI.
It is designed to overcome lag error in the normal VSI using
accelerometer or dash pot.
The inertia of the accelerometer piston will move upward (if descent)
and downward (if ascent) so as to quicken the expansion and
contraction of the differential capsule by pumping air into it.
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Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator (IVSI)
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Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator
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Temperature Measuring Instrument

Temperature is defined as the degree of heat
produce by a body, object or environment.
HEAT
It is the amount of heat energy a body contains.
ie: its (mass x temperature)
Change of temperature will cause:
A change of pressure
A change of length
A change in volume
A change in electrical resistance
A production of ‘thermo-emf’
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Types of Temperature Measuring Instrument

A thermometer is an instrument that measures the
temperature of a system in a quantitative way.
It can be measured by monitoring
• the expansion of different materials.
• the change of resistance as in electrical type.
• the electromotive force dependent on the difference in temperature
between two junctions.
Non-electrical
Liquid, solid or gas expansion
Electrical
Wheatstone bridge system
Ratiometer system
Thermoelectrical
Thermo-emf system 75
– thermocouple
Liquid Expansion
Also called clinical thermometer.
Enclosed glass tube filled with mercury or coloured alcohol.
The expansion of the liquid due to temperature changes
make it rise on a linear scale.
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Solid Expansion
 Uses two dissimilar metals (Brass and Iron or Brass and Invar) warped
together to form a helix and anchored at one end.
 Brass expand twice as iron as temperature increases.
 Expansion rate causes by temperature, changes the amount of twist and
moves the pointer.
 This will gives a direct indication of temperature on a circular scale.
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Gas Expansion
Consists of a liquid gas

filled temperature bulb
connected to a capillary
tube.
Capillary is connected to a
bourdon tube.
Expansion ofMalaysian
gas willInstitute
try toof Aviation Technology
straighten bourdon tube
which will indicates
temperature by lever and
sextant gear to the pointer.
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Wheatstone Bridge
 Recognized by the diamond shape circuit.
 R1, R2, R3, are fixed value resistors.
 R4 is a variable resistor (Temperature bulb).
 The sensing wire used in R4 (temperature bulb) is nickel wire
or platinum wire which is positive temperature coefficient,
(temp increase – resistance increase).
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Wheatstone Bridge
Rectification
Short circuit
– low resistance or low temperature.
– change the bulb.
Open circuit
– high resistance or high temperature.
– change the bulb.
The temperature bulb Institute
Malaysian is used to
measure oil temp, fuel temp, or air
temperature.
Disadvantage is that the variation
of power source will effect
indicator reading.
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Ratiometer
A ratiometer measures
the ratio of current
flowing into two
coils.i.e. Deflection and
control coil.
The reading is not
affected by the Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology
variation of the input
power supply.
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Thermocouple
It follows SEEBECK Effect (Thermoelectric Effect).
– It converts heat energy into electrical energy.
It is used to measure high temperature
Two dissimilar metals are wound at both ends.
– HOT JUNCTION – a measuring junction.
– COLD JUNCTION – a reference end/indicator.
When there is a different
Malaysian in temperature
Institute between two
junction, a voltage is generated.

– i.e; at 100°C it produces 4 millivolt (0.004V).
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Thermocouple
The two dissimilar metal

used are:
Copper and Constantan
– 400°C
– used on piston engine.
Iron and Constantan
– 850°C
– used on turbo prop engine.
Cromel and Alumel
– 1100°C
– used on jet engine.
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Thermocouple
Thermocouple principle, temperature indicating system are

used to measure temperature of the following.
CHT – cylinder head temperature
EGT – exhaust gas temperature
TGT – turbine gas temperature
JPT – jet pipe temperature
TIT – turbine inlet temperature
TOT – turbine outlet temperature
ITT – intermediate turbine temperature
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Thermocouple
Standard colour coded for the
thermocouple wires are:
Iron – black
Constantan – yellow
Copper – red
Chromel – white
Alumel – green
Positive potential wires are:

– copper, iron and cromel.
Negative potential wires are:
– constantan and alumel.
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Cylinder Head Temperature (CHT)
Used on piston Engine

Install on the hottest cylinder
Known as CHT
Type of mounting
– Surface mounted type
– Immersion type
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Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT)
Used on Jet Engine

Installed in the exhaust
and uses multiple
probes connected in
parallel.
An EGT indicator is a
millivolt meter.
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Thermocouple Probe
Probe application depend on
velocity of gas produce by jet
engine.
Stagnation
– Used on pure jet engine
– High gas velocity
Rapid-response
– Used on turboprop engine
– Exhaust gas velocity is low
Triple element
– Are used if other system requires the
signals data. 90
Engine Speed Indicating System

To indicate to the pilot
Rotational speed of the crank shaft of a piston engine.
Rotational speed of the compressor shaft of a
turboprop/turbojet engine.
→ N1 – low compressor shaft.
→ N2 – high compressor shaft.
Types
Mechanical
→ Centrifugal principle
→ Magnetic drag cup
Electrical
→Generator and indicator
Electronic
→Tacho probe and indicator 91
Centrifugal type speed-indicating
Engine crankshaft driving the flexible drive shaft, in turn

rotate the gear of the flyweight shaft.
The centrifugal force of the flywheel will pull the linkage
and rotate the sextant gear to turn the pointer of the
indicator.
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Mechanical eddy-current drag principle
Flexible drive shaft rotate the permanent

magnet inside an aluminum drag cup.
The permanent magnet produces a
rotating magnetic field which create
eddy current on the drag cup.
These eddy current create a drag torque
in the drag cup. (Lenz’s Law – tendency
to oppose the creation of induced
currents). Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology
The drag torque does work on drag cup
which rotate in the direction of the
rotating permanent magnet against a
spring tension to move the pointer.
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Fall into two main elements. Generator and Indicator

Transmitter
– Called tachometer generator.
– A 3 phase AC generator.
Receiver
– Is an indicator (tachometer
indicator) installed on the
instrument panel.
– Consist of synchronous
motor which turns the
permanent magnet inside the
drag cup. Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology
Not a direct reading
system.
The advantage of this
system is that it did not
required aircraft electrical
power. 94
Generator and Indicator system

Detecting element – an AC generator, rotor may be of
either two-pole or four pole construction. Mounted to
engine accessories drive gear and operating speed is
reduced to 4:1 or 2:1 ratio.
Driving element – is a synchronous motor having a star-

connected three-phase stator winding, self-starting, and
high torque characteristics ofAviation
Malaysian Institute of a squirrel-cage
Technology motor.
Speed-indicating element – consists of permanent

magnet device which operates on the eddy-current drag
principle.
95
Tacho probe and Indicator

Advantages are;
Provide engine speed.
Output to other systems ie; automatic power control and
flight data acquisition systems.
Solid state – no moving parts for high speed rotation.
Indicator are of a servo operated type.
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Construction of Tacho Probe
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Stainless steel, hermetically sealed probe comprises a permanent

magnet, a pole piece, and a number of cupro-nickel or nickel-chromium
coils around a ferromagnetic core.
Separate windings provide outputs to the indicator and other processing
units requiring engine speed data.
The pole pieces are in close proximity to the teeth of a gear wheel
(phonic wheel) which is driven at the same speed as the compressor
shaft.
The permanent magnet produces a magnetic field around the sensing
coils, and as the gear wheel teeth pass the pole pieces, the intensity of
flux through each Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology
pole varies inversely with the width of the air gap
between poles and gear wheel teeth.
As the flux density changes, an emf is induced in the sensing coils, the
amplitude of the emf varying with the rate of flux density change.
98
Electronic Tachometer
Electronic tachometer used on

turbine engine
Operation:
Uses a sensor which contains a
coil of wire that generates a
magnetic field.
As each blade goes by, it cuts
the field of the coil and this is
sensed and measured by anof Aviation Technology
Malaysian Institute
electronic circuit.
The frequency at which the
blade cut across the field of the
sensor is directly proportional
to the fan RPM.
99
Electronic tachometer
Used on turbine engine.
Operation:
Shaft of engine drive the rotor
with a permanent magnet
embedded in its rim.
The sensor contains a coil
which is located close to the
rotating magnet.
Each time the field of the
rotating permanent magnet
cuts across the coil, its
induces a voltage.
The frequency of this signal is
measured and used to
position pointer for correct
RPM indication.
100
Percent Engine RPM
Percentage Speed Indicators

These indicators are designed to indicate
the speed of a turbine engine as a
percentage of the nominal maximum
speed.
The scales are graduated from 0 to 100%
indication corresponding to the nominal
maximum engine speed and a specific
generator drive speed which is usually
4,200 rev/min.
Indicators allow for slight increases in
nominal maximum engine speed by reading
up to 110%.
101
Engine Vibration Indicating System

It provide continuous indication of vibration conditions and from any
sudden variations in amplitude when turbine engines are running can also
provide an early warning of defects in the internal rotating parts and
bearings, permitting corrective action to be taken before extensive damage
occurs.
 Consists of an engine mounted pick-up unit which, in a typical
application contains a spring-supported magnet and inductor coil
assembly, an amplifier and an indicator mounted on the appropriate
instrument panel. Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology
 The scale of the indicator is graduated in units of fixed relative
amplitude.
 A test push switch and an amber warning lamp also form part of a
system. The power supply required for system operation is 115 volt
single phase 400 Hz.
102
Engine Vibration Indicating System

When an engine is running and electrical power is applied to the system,
vibration causes relative motion between the magnet and coil and signal
voltages are induced in the coil which are proportional to the velocity of
vibration.
These signals are applied to the amplifier where they are processed and
fed to the indicator moving coil causing displacement of the pointer to
positions indicating corresponding values of relative vibration
amplitudes.
If the vibration level exceeds a predetermined value a circuit is
completed to illuminate the warning lamp.
The purpose of the test switch is to check the continuity of the complete
circuit.
Operation of the switch connects a standard test signal, generated in
the indicator-amplifier, to the pick-up unit and if the circuit is fault-free the
test signal produces a standard value of vibration amplitude on the 103
indicator.
Vibrationmeter
Purpose
To monitor engine condition/health.
Calibrated in increment of tenth from 0 – 5.
– < 2.5 good condition
– > 2.5 required corrective/investigation
Type and operation
Velocity pick-up system
– Sensor is aMalaysian
permanent
Institute magnet suspended on springs
in center of a coil.
Accelerometer system
– A piece of piezoelectric material is attached to a
mass.
104
Vibrationmeter – Velocity Pickup Type
105
Vibrationmeter – Piezo Electric Type
106
Vibrationmeter – Piezo Electric Type
107
Synchronous Data-transmission Systems

 As aircraft are getting bigger now day a ‘direct reading instruments’ is
not practical because it requires a lots of plumbing and linkages that
are difficult to route to the flight deck for the flight crew to view.
 To overcomes these we need a remote indicating systems i.e:
synchro for these purposes.
Synchro which:
Synchronized a control surfaces to the indicator.
Activates indicators in the cockpit without using excessively long
mechanical linkages or tubing.
Indication is picked up by the transmitter, located near engine or at
some other remote point, and sent by electrical means to the indicator
on the flight deck.
Synchro system is designed to measure an angular deflection at one
point and reproduce this same deflection at a remote point.
108
Synchronous Data-transmission Systems

Self-synchronous instruments consists of two elements:
Transmitter (TX)
—Measuring element
Receiver (RX)
—Indicating element
They are used to measure and indicate the following on an

aircraft:
Fuel pressure Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology
Oil pressure
Fuel level
Fuel flow
Landing gear position
Flap position 109
Remote Indicating System
Remote indicating systems or synchronous data-transmission systems

are systems that let pilots know where certain control surfaces are in
their movements.
These systems can be of a DC or AC systems.
DC system
DC selsyn / desynn
AC system.
Autosyn®
Synchro
Magnesyn®
110
DC Selsyn (Desynn)
It consist of :-
Transmitter – Wiper arm and Toroidal Resistor
Receiver – Star winding Stator And Permanent Magnet Rotor
111
DC Selsyn (Desynn)
Operation:
When direct current is applied to the transmitter contact arms,
which are in contact with the toroidal resistor, currents flow in the
resistor causing the three tapping points to be at different
potentials.
For example, with contact arms in the position shown in the figure,
the potential at tapping No 2 is greater than that at No 1 because
there is less resistance in the circuit between the positive arm and
No 2 tapping. Thus, currents are caused to flow in the lines
between transmitter and receiver, the magnitude and direction of
which depend upon the position of the contact arms on the toroidal
resistor. Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology
In turn, these currents flow through the coils of the receiver stator
and produce a magnetic field about each coil.
Thus either end of the coil may be designated as a N-pole or S-
pole, depending on the direction of the current through the coil.
The combined fields extend across the stator gap and cause the
permanent magnet rotor to align itself with their resultant. 112
Autosyn
• It consist of:
– Transmitter - Single coil rotor and Delta winding
stator.
– Receiver - Single coil rotor and Delta winding stator.
• Transmitter is attach to the point where the
measurement is taken and receiver will became the
indicator in the instrument panel.
113
Autosyn
Operation:
When the rotor are aligned with their respective stators in the position
indicated they are said to be at ‘electrical zero.
With power applied to the rotors, due to transformer action a certain
voltage will be induced in the stator coils the value of which will be
governed, as in any transformer, by the ratio of number of turns of the
rotor (primary) and stator (secondary) coils.
When the rotors of the TX and TR occupy the same angular positions,
and power is applied, equal and opposite voltages will be produced and
hence no current can flow in the stator coils. The Autosyn system is then
said to be ‘null’.
When the rotor occupy different angular positions, for example when the
Malaysian
TX rotor is at the 30 degreeInstitute
positionof Aviation
and theTechnology
TR rotor is at electrical zero,
and unbalance occurs between stator coil voltages causing current to
flow in the lines and stator coils. The currents are greatest in the circuits
where voltage unbalance is greatest and their effect is to produce
magnetic fields which exert torques to turn the TR rotor to the same
position as that of the TX. As the TR rotor continues to turn, the
misalignment, voltage unbalance and currents decreases until 30 degree
position is reached and no further torque is exerted on the rotor. 114
Synchro
It consist of:
Transmitter - Single coil rotor and Star winding stator.
Receiver – The construction is the same with the transmitter but the
only difference is it has a damper fitted inside.
Transmitter is attach to the point where the measurement is taken and
receiver will became the indicator in the instrument panel.
115
Synchro
Operation:
When the rotor are aligned with their respective stators in the position
indicated they are at ‘electrical zero’, this refers to the reference angle
standardized for synchros at which a given set of stator voltages will be
produced, and by convention enables replacement synchros to be match to
each other.
With power applied to the rotors, due to transformer action a certain voltage
will be induced in the stator coils the value of which will be governed, as in
any transformer.
When the rotors of the TX and TR occupy the same angular positions, and
power is applied, equal and opposite voltages will be produced and hence
no current can flow in the stator coils. The system (and any other type of
synchro) is then saidMalaysian
to be ‘null’.
When the rotor occupy different angular positions, example when the TX
rotor is at the 30 degree position and the TR rotor is at electrical zero, and
unbalance occurs between stator coil voltages causing current to flow in the
lines and stator coils. This produce magnetic fields which exert torques to
turn the TR rotor to the same position as that of the TX. As the TR rotor
continues to turn, the misalignment, voltage unbalance and currents
decreases until 30 degree position is reached and no further torque is
116
exerted on the rotor.
Magnesyn
It consist of:
Transmitter – Permanent Magnet rotor and single stator winding.
This winding is wound on a round iron core which start and end at the
same point on the core and two taping on the winding. The angle
between both taping and coil start/end point are equally spaced.
Receiver – Same as transmitter.
Transmitter is attach to the point where the measurement is taken and
receiver will became the indicator in the instrument panel.
117
Operation: Magnesyn
The system is energized with 26 V AC, 400 Hz, single phase current.
The natural path of the lines of force of the magnets in the indicator and transmitter
will be through the iron core of the magnesyn coils. However, when the systems is
energized, the magnetic field around the magnesyn coil set up by the energizing
current forces the field of the magnet out.
In passing out of the iron core, the magnet’s field will cut across the windings of the
coil in order to return to the iron core: this induces an opposite voltage.
The field of the permanent magnet cuts the windings of the coil 2 times per half cycle
of the energizing voltage; therefore, the voltage induced by the permanent magnet
will be 800 cycles AC.
As long as the magnet in the indicator and transmitter are in the same positions
relative to the two coils, the potential at each end of the signal voltage leads will be
the same and no current will flow.
However, if the magnets are notInstitute
Malaysian in the same position
of Aviation relative to their coils, the
Technology
stronger signal will overcome the weaker one and this flow into the coils. This will
create a magnetic field of 800 cycle voltage that attracts the magnets.
In the transmitter, the field of the signal voltage will tend to affect the position of the
magnet but since this is held by the input shaft, the position is unaffected. In the
indicator, however, since the magnet is normally connected to a light pointer, it will
respond to the pull of the signal voltage field.
When the magnet in the indicator reaches the same relative position as the magnet
in the transmitter, the signal voltages will again have same potential, and no current 118
flow.
Synchro
There are four basic types
Torque synchro
are classified "torque" because they are mainly concerned with the torque or
turning force required to move light loads such as dials, pointers, or similar
indicators.
Control synchro
are used in systems that are designed to move heavy loads such as gun
directors, radar antennas, and missile launchers.
Differential synchro
These are used as an additional synchro inserted between a TX and TR. They
give an output proportional to the sum or difference of two inputs.
Resolver synchro
The output can be presented as polar or Cartesian coordinates. Used in aircraft
119
instruments and navigational systems.
Gyroscope
It is a rotating body, mass or wheel and when it spin, has

the ability to maintain its axis of spin in a constant
attitude.
Any rotating mass has gyroscopic properties which

produces special effects that it does not have if it is
stationary.
Masses whichMalaysian
produceInstitute of Aviation Technology
gyroscopic effect include a
spinning coin, a bicycle wheel, helicopter rotor blade and
any mass that rotates.
120
Gyroscope
Free Gyro consists of:

 Rotor or wheel
– made of copper, steel, titanium.
 An inner gimbal ring.
 An outer gimbal ring.
Fundamental characteristics
of a gyro
 Rigidity
 Precession
121
Rigidity
The ability of a gyro to maintain a fix position during spinning irrespective
of any forces acting on it.
A free gyroscope is designed to have rigidity.
Rigidity depend on three factors:
– Mass of the rotor
– Speed of rotation
– Distance at which the mass acts from the center (radius of gyration)
122
Precession
Is the movement of gyro away

from its fix position or datum
due to friction or force.
Precession depend on three
factors:
– Strength and direction of
the applied force
– Malaysian
Moment of inertia of Institute
the of Aviation Technology
rotor
– Angular velocity of rotor
123
Precession
The change in direction take place,not in line
with the force, but always at a point 90 degree
away in the direction of rotation.
Topple
Gyro is said to be topple when it is exposed to a
very severe precession and locked between the
gimbal.
Torque
Torque applied toMalaysian
the gyroInstitute
can beofinAviation
the form of
Technology
pressure, air jet, or electronic means.
– torque applied to the inner gimbal of a free
gyro will cause the outer ring to veer.
– torque applied to the outer gimbal of a free
gyro will cause the inner ring to tilt.
124
125
Degree of Freedom
Spin on its own axis.

Veer on its vertical axis.
Tilt on its horizontal axis.
126
Name given to Gyros

They are based upon axis of spin or function
Horizontal gyro
– Axis of spin horizontal
– Control heading
Vertical gyro
– Axis of spin vertical
– Control attitude.
Earth gyro
– A gyro where it axis of spin is pointing towards the earth surface.
(It is tied to Malaysian
the earth)Institute of Aviation Technology
– Control attitude
Space gyro
– A gyro where it axis of spin is pointing a one direction in space.
127
Gyroscope
Limitation to a free gyro
Real drift
– Unwanted precession caused by imperfection in gyro.
– Bearing friction and gimbal unbalance.
– Also known as Random wander or Free wander.
Apparent drift
– Free gyro appear to veer or drift as the earth rotate at 15 deg per
hour.
Transport wander
– Horizontal gyro will show wander if it travel from north to lower
latitude. Can be overcome
Malaysian by using
Institute gravity-sensing
of Aviation Technology device.
128
Tied Gyro
129
Apparent Drift
130
Transport Wander
131
Methods of Operation
Pneumatic
– Pressure 3.5 to 4.5 inHg
– Speed 12,000 to 15,000 RPM
– Gyro wheel larger
– Heavier made of brass
Electrical
– AC system (Attitude
Malaysian InstituteIndicator)
– DC system (Turn and Bank Indicator)
– Speed 20,000 to 25,000 RPM
– Gyro wheel smaller
– Rotor of electrical motor
132
Pneumatic Operated Gyro
133
Pendulous Vane Erection System

Employed on air driven gyro to provide for normal erection at
rate of 8 degree per minute. The air that drives the rotor
exhausts through four slots on the base of the gyro housing
(inner gimbal). Each of the four slots is bisected by knife edged
pendulous vane when the gyro is properly erected.
When the gyro is properly erect the jets of air from the front and back
slots are equal and opposite and so cancel each other out. Similarly the
jets on each side are equal and opposite.
If the gyro is not erect, sayInstitute
Malaysian the topofisAviation
tilted to the front of the instrument,
Technology
the side vanes (parallel to YY1 axis) will remain vertical. This will close
off one of the side ports, and fully open the opposite side port.
The increased reaction from the air at the open port results in the torque
applied to the rotor housing about XX1, causing the gyro to precess
about YY1 and so erect the gyro.
134
Pendulous Vane Erection System
135
Ball Type Erection Unit

Another purely mechanical erection system which and may be used on either
air driven or electrically driven gyros. The standby horizon on a 747 (which is
electrically driven) uses this type of erection system.
A radiused disc is attached to the bottom of the gyro housing with specially
profiled hooks around the edge of the disc. This assembly is rotated in the
same direction as the gyro rotor, but at a much slower speed – typically 25 rpm.
A number of steel balls are free to move on the disc.
With the gyro erect, the balls will congregate in the center of the radiused disc,
and no precessional forces are applied to the gyro.
If the spin axis of the gyro is displaced, the balls will fall to the low side of the
disc to be collected Malaysian Institute
by the hooks and of Aviation
carried Technology
around by the rotation of the
mechanism.
As the balls move from the low side to the high side, they will fall out of the hooks
and back to the low side. This process will concentrate the mass of the balls 90
degrees in the direction of rotation from the low side of the disc.
This applies a torque to the gyro rotor to precess the gyro back to the erect
position.
136
Ball Type Erection Unit
137
Electrical Erection System

Torque Motor and Leveling Switch
This is a common erection system used in
many
electrically driven gyros, and uses a gravity
sensing
mercury switches to control split phase torque
motors.
Two mercury switches (also called leveling
switches)
are fitted to the inner gimbal assembly of the
gyro;
One longitudinally to sense pitch axis
erection errors.
The other laterally to sense roll axis
erection errors.
Each mercury switch consists of a sealed
Malaysian Institute
glass tube with three electrodes of Aviation Technology
and a small
quantity of mercury and an inert gas.
Two torque motors are fitted:
One on the roll axis ZZ1 between the
frame (case) and outer gimbal to precess
the gyro in pitch.
The other on the pitch axis YY1 between
the inner and outer gimbals to precess the
gyro in roll. 138
Electrical Erection System
139
Torque Motor and Leveling Switch

Each torque motor is of the split phase type with permanently powered (via
a capacitor) reference phase winding, and two control phase windings
connected to AC via the mercury switches.
This type of erection system has two modes of operation:
Normal erection
Fast erection
Consider the circuit for one of the torque motors.
With the gyro properly erect the mercury will be in the center position
and so neither of the control windings are energised.
When the gyro is not erect the mercury will fall to one end in the mercury
switch completingMalaysian
the circuit to one
Institute of the control
of Aviation windings.
Technology
If the gyro was displaced about the pitch axis the longitudinal mercury
switch will complete the circuit to appropriate control winding in the pitch
torque motor. This will apply a torque to the gyro about the roll axis,
precessing the gyro about the pitch axis until the gyro is properly erect.
Note that the supply for the erection system normally comes from a step
down auto-transformer at 20V. this is for normal erection giving an erection
140
rate of 3 degree to 5 degree per minute.
Fast Erection Switch

Pressing the fast erection switch simply by-passes the
auto transformer applying 115V AC directly to the
torque motors. This increases the erection rate to 120
degree to 180 degree per minute.
Two precautions must be observed using this switches:
1. The switch must not be pressed for longer than 15
seconds to prevent overheating of the torque motors.
2. The switch must only be used in the straight and level
flight or shallow pitch angles or else false indications will
result.
141
Nutation
A speed monitoring circuit (called a spin-down brake)

is used to prevent the oscillating effect nutation, of the
gyro which occurs at low rotational speeds when the
gimbal are not orthogonal.
The system holds outer gimbal steady at the following
times:
For short period of time after power is applied.
After power is removed to prevent gyro assembly spinning
about vertical axis.
In some cases a delay of approximately 30 seconds
occurs before the brake is applied.
142
Types of Gyros
Free Gyro
– A gyro having complete freedom in 3 planes at right angles to each
other.
– This is also sometimes known as a ‘space gyro’.
Tied gyro
– A gyro having freedom in 3 planes at right angles to each other but
controlled by some external source. All gyros on aircraft are tied.
Earth gyro
– A tied gyro controlled by gravity to maintain its position relative to earth.
– Artificial gyro is an earth gyro.
Rate gyro
– A gyro having 1 plane of freedom at right angles to the plane of rotation,
so constructed as to measure rate of movement about the plane at right
angles to both the plane of rotation and the plane of freedom.
Laser gyro
– It is rate sensor with no rotating mass or gimbal system.
143
– The attitude output signal can be directed to the navigational computer.
Heading Indicator
Directional Gyro Indicator
To provide aircraft heading
based on gyroscopic rigidity.
To act as an adjuster to the
magnetic compass.
Reading is of the drum-type
which is the same as the
magnetic compass.
It’s uses a horizontal gyro
which is also known as an
azimuth or directional gyro to
detect any movement about it
azimuth plane.
144
Directional Gyro Indicator
Modern directional gyro indicator uses

the vertical compass card indicator
which is easy to read.
Drum-type indicator reading is the
reverse of normal compass
orientation which can caused
confusion to pilot.
Consist of:
Compass rose Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology
– Dial rotate in the calibration of 0

deg to 360 deg
Aircraft symbol
– Points upward to show aircraft
heading
145
Heading Indicator
Construction
Horizontal gyro
Compass card
– mounted to the outer
gimbal.
Lubber line
– to reduce parallex error.
Caging knob
– for fast erection of gyro.
Suction piping and filter.
146
Attitude Indicator
Purpose:
To indicate to the pilot the attitude
of the aircraft in roll and pitch.
It is also called an Artificial Horizon
Indicator.
Upper background plate is colored
blue to indicate sky.
Lower backplate, dark colour to
indicate ground.
Bank Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology
– calibrated in 10, 20, 30, 60 and

90° (Max roll freedom 360 deg)
Pitch
– calibrated in 5, 10, 15, 20°
(Max freedom ±85º) 147
Attitude Indicator
148
Attitude Indicator
It uses a vertical gyro
to detect any movement
on it’s horizontal plane.
Construction
Vertical Gyro
Artificial Horizon
Miniature Aircraft Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology
Caging Knob
Filter
Piping connection
149
Attitude Indicator
150
Attitude Director Indicator

An attitude indicator integrated
with flight director system
Its displays:
– A normal artificial horizon
indication
– Steering command called
command bar
151
Flight Director Systems

A flight director system (FDS) is one in which the display of
pitch and roll attitude and heading of an aircraft are integrated
with such radio navigation systems as automatic direction
finder (ADF), very high-frequency omnidirectional range
(VOR), and Instrument landing system (ILS) so as to perform
a total directive command function.It also provides for the
transmission of attitude and navigational data to an AFCS so
that in combination they can operate as an effective flight
guidance system.
152
Flight Director Systems
153
Flight Director Commands
154
Turn and Slip Indicator
To indicate to the pilot the

rate of turn of an aircraft
in degree per minute.
Rate 1
– 180º per minute
Rate 2
Rate 3 Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology
Standard rate is 3 deg per
second
155
Construction and Operation

These turn indicator depend on precession for their operation.
It uses a rate gyro to detect any movement about its vertical axis.
Consist of:
Rate gyro
– Consist of one gimbal ring
– Has one degree of freedom
– Rotational speed of rotor is half of that use directional gyro or attitude
indicator
– Centered by a calibrated spring or dashpot
A pointer Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology
– Gimbal move the pointer.
Scale
– Rate of turn.
156
Construction and Operation

When aircraft is turn out it’s vertical axis, the action of the centrifugal force
will cause the gyro to tilt against the tension of the spring.
When the spring tension equals to the centrifugal force, the pointer will
indicates the rate of turn of the aircraft.
157
158
Inclinometer
It is part of the turn and slip

indicator.
– Consist of curve glass tube
filled with fluid and ball.
The position of the ball will
indicates the condition of bank
during a turn.
Principle of operation.
– It measures the balance
between gravity force and
centrifugal force created by
the turn.
159
Turn Coordinator
To displays to a pilot
information about his rate of
turn, rate of roll, and the
'quality' or 'coordination' of the
turn.
The turn coordinator was
developed to replace the older
turn and bank indicator, which
displayed rate and quality of
turn but not rate Malaysian
of roll. Institute of Aviation Technology
Can be of pneumatic operated
system or DC electrical
system.
160
Turn Coordinator
161
Construction and
operation
Rate Gyro restrained by

calibrated spring or dashpot.
The Gyro is mounted in a canted
position 30 deg from horizontal
axis.
The indicator is a miniature
aircraft symbol instead of a
pointer.
Scale is calibrated in standard
rate turn.
Come with inclinometer.
162
Navigational Chart
Lines of Longitude are lines drawn from North to South.
The Prime Meridian is the lines of Longitude and is recognized by angle of
0º.
All lines of Longitude are known as Meridians.
Lines of Longitude are drawn from 1º to 179º E and 1º to 179º W.
The International Dateline is the lines of Longitude which is 180º.
Lines of Latitude are lines drawn from East to West.
The Equator which is 0º is a good example of Line of Latitude.
Lines of Latitude can be drawn up to 90º S and 90º N.
163
Terrestrial Magnetism
The earth behaves as though it contains a cylindrical bar magnet.
The magnetic poles are about 90 miles away from true or geographical
poles.
Its north pole in the southern hemisphere and south pole in the northern
hemisphere.
The direction of magnetic field is vertical at the poles, horizontal at the
equator.
A freely suspended compass needle or bar magnet aligns itself parallel to
the earth’s magnetic field.
– The compass needle will stand vertical at the poles and horizontal at
the equator.
– The magnetic meridian is the direction in horizontal plane of the freely
suspended compass needle influenced only by the earth’s magnetic
field.
– The angle of dip is the angle between the horizontal and a freely
suspended compass needle influenced only by the earth’s magnetic
field.
164
165
Terrestrial Magnetism
166
Definitions
ACLINIC LINE (magnetic equator)
The line along which all points have zero dip.
ISOCLINAL
The line along which all points have equal dip.
ISOGONAL
A line on the surfaceMalaysian
of the earth along
Institute whichTechnology
of Aviation all points
have the same variation.
AGONIC LINE
A line on the surface of the earth along which all points
have nil variation. 167
Variation
Also known as Magnetic Declination - The angle between magnetic north
and true north at a particular location.
Isogonic Line – A line on a chart connecting points of equal magnetic
variation - easterly or westerly.
Agonic – An imaginary line on the earth's surface connecting points where
the variation is zero.
168
Deviation
The angular difference between
magnetic heading and compass
heading due to magnetic
influences in or near aircraft
caused by surrounding metals
and electrical accessories.
It is called Easterly (positive
deviation) or Westerly (negative
deviation).
Corrected by adjusting
compensator magnet and
residual deviation on compass
correction card or ‘steer by’ card.
169
Compass
To indicate the aircraft heading with respect to Magnetic North.
It is a north seeking device.
Magnetic attraction to the earth’s magnetic field.
Commonly used compass on aircraft are:
– Direct reading compass or magnetic compass also called
standby compass if it is not used as a primary heading
reference.
– Remote indicating compass or slave compass.
170
Magnetic Compass
A self contain instrument that did
not require external source.
A freely suspended bar magnet
will have one of it end pointing to
magnetic North.
In flight when aircraft changes
heading, the compass casing will
moves according to aircraft
direction.
The compass remain stationary
and a new heading will be viewed
on the compass card.
the lubber line is to reduce
parallax error.
171
Magnetic Compass
 A compass card or float which is mounted on jeweled bearing. It has numbers and direction
markings so that the magnetic heading of the aircraft can be read from the instrument.
 The case is filled with a light oil (refined kerosene) which dampens float motion and
lubricates the bearing.
 A diaphragm or bellows accommodates thermal expansion and contraction.
 The compensator is two small moveable magnets used to adjust the compass for deviation
error.
 The lubber line is a marker against which readings are taken.
172
Remote Indicating Compass
A heading indicator that is fitted onto the instrument

panel.
It is not a self contain device.
Heading information is slave to the flux valve or
directional gyro.
Flux valve which sense the earth’s magnetic field are
located at a remote area of the aircraft where there is
least magnetic disturbances.
The heading indicator is called Gyro Compass or Slave
Compass.
173
Remote Indicating compass

Consist of:
Flux valves/flux gates
– Located where there is least interference of magnetic deviation.
– It sensed the direction of the earth magnetic field.
Directional gyro unit
– To provide heading signal to the compass system base on
gyroscopic rigidity.
Slaving amplifier
– To slave the directional gyro to the flux valve when it is in compass
mode.
Servo amplifier
– To detect any Malaysian
errors and feed of
Institute toAviation
servo network
Technologyto balance the
circuit.
Heading indicator
– Mounted on the instrument panel
Compass controller
– Mode selector switch (DG or Slave)
– Annunciator (show system synchronization)
– Set-heading knob (set heading manually) 174
Slave Compass
175
Slave
Compass
176
Horizontal Situation Indicator
Also known as Course Deviation

Indicator (CDI)
Combine Heading (Slaved Gyro
Indicator) with VOR and
Glideslope Indicator.
Represent aircraft's heading and
the aircraft's position in relation to
any beacon tuned in on the NAV1
receiver.
The Heading bug is triangular and
the Course bug is pointed.
Warning flag (NAV, HDG, GS) will
comes on if system failed.
177
Horizontal Situation Indicator
178
Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI)

Its displays magnetic heading and bearing indication in a single indicator.
– Heading information is from slave compass system.
– ADF and VOR is from airfield non-directional beacon (NDB).
ADF will show direction (to and from) of the designated airfield.
VOR will show the exact heading of the designated airfield.
179
Course Deviation Indicator and Bearing-Distance-Heading-

Indicator
180
Aircraft Magnetism and its effect on Compasses

There are two type of magnetism in aircraft:
Hard Iron magnetism
– It is of permanent nature and ‘builds’ itself into the aircraft
structure during manufacture.
Soft Iron magnetism
– It is of a temporary nature, where the earth’s field
magnetises some materials. This is very dependent on
the aircraft’sMalaysian
heading, altitude
Institute andTechnology
of Aviation its geographical
position at any particular point in time.
181
Compass and Compensation Definitions

 ‘Calibration’ means the measurement of residual deviations of a compass
installed in an aircraft.
‘Compensation’ means the correction of deviations resulting from
magnetism in an aircraft.
‘Deviation’ means the angle required to be added algebraically to a
compass reading to obtain the aircraft magnetic heading.
‘Direct reading compass’ means a compass which has the magnetic
sensing element and heading indication located in the one instrument.
‘Remote indicatingMalaysian
compass Institute of Aviation Technology
means a compass system which has the
magnetic sensing element located remotely from the indicator(s) together
with gyroscopic means to stabilise or smooth the heading indications.
‘Standby compass’ means a direct reading compass which is not used as
the primary heading reference.
182
Aircraft Errors
Due to the fact that aircrafts contain a certain amount of iron and other magnetic
material and there are a lot of life wires in an aircraft. The aircraft itself will generate a
magnetic field that will disturb the precession of the compass systems. These aircraft
errors or static errors we can divide into three categories; Index errors, one cycle
errors and two cycle errors.
Aircraft (static) errors
One cycle errors Two cycle errors

Index errors
Lateral Longitudinal
Coefficient C Coefficient B Coefficient D Coefficient E

Coefficient A
A correction C correction B correction Not corrected
183
Principal errors on Compasses

Index Error
It is a coefficient ‘A’ error, result from the mal-alignment of flux detector unit
and has the same magnitude on all headings.
One-cycle Errors
These are the deviations produced as a result of the effects of components of
hard-iron magnetism of the aircraft’s structure. Coefficient ‘C’ and ‘B’ error.
Two-cycle Errors
These result from imperfections in the transmission of heading data and are
often known as transmission errors. They are caused by the impedance or
voltage unbalance in the flux detector sensing element or in the synchros of
the compass system.
Another source of two-cycle error
Malaysian is soft-iron
magnetism.
Crosstalk Errors
These errors occur particularly during ‘electrical’ swinging procedure when DC
signals simulating the earth’s field are applied. They are caused by different
sensitivities of the flux detector unit coils and by unequal air gaps separating
the flux collectors horns. The overall effect is to produce quadrantal
184
components which offset the field from that originally intended.
Compass Swing
Observing the compass reading on different headings of the
aircraft.
Calculating the deviation errors and determining coefficients.
Neutralising the magnetic field of the aircraft by adjusting the
compensator devices.
Recording any residual deviations.
– Deviation recorded on the steer by card must not be more
than 5º for light aircraft, 3º for large aircraft.
– Deviation card should be in interval of 30º on light aircraft
and 45º for large aircraft.
185
Condition that required compass swing
 After flying through electrical storm or strike by lightning.

 After any modification, repair or major component change involving
magnetic material.
 Calendar date due.
 Suspect error reading.
 After modification in the vicinity of flux detector.
 Electrical/radio installation in vicinity of flux detector.
 Whenever a compass been subjected to shock.
 After magnetic crackMalaysian
detection check.
 After ferrying freight load of magnetic influence.
 Aircraft has been in long term storage.
 Whenever the sphere of operation of the aircraft is changed to one of
difference magnetic latitude.
186
Types of ‘swinging’ procedure

Conventional
This is where the magnetic heading reference datum is obtained,
either from a compass rose or from a datum compass.
Electrical
This is where the earth’s magnetic field is simulated by electrical
signals in such a way that it is unnecessary to rotate the aircraft onto
various headings as in the conventional swing. These simulated
headings are compared with the actual headings by the aircraft
compass systems to determine the deviation errors to be
compensated. Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology
INS
This uses the system display unit heading information as the datum for
compass swinging. The effects of diurnal changes in magnetic
variation must be taken into account in order to minimize compass
deviation errors.
187
Preparation before Swinging
To be carried out on a Compass Rose or Compass Base.

– area free from any magnetic interference.
– Aircraft operator and airport authority are responsible to do survey.
Set aircraft to level flight condition.
– engine running
– control surfaces to be in normal straight and level flight
– electrical equipments switched on – radio, instruments, pitot tube heater
– cockpit area to be free from any magnetic material.
Technician involved Malaysian
will be free fromofmagnetic
Institute material items on their body.
Aviation Technology
Non-magnetic tool to be use when adjusting compass compensator.
188
Compass Base Classifications

Compass bases may be established as either Class 1 or Class 2,
the difference between them being only in the limits of permitted
maximum deviation to be found anywhere within the base area as
follows:
Class 1
The maximum permissible deviation is ±0.10º. Bases of this accuracy
are required for carrying out refined swings, e.g. swinging of aircraft in
which remote‑reading compasses are used as magnetic heading
reference systems, in conjunction with such equipment as Doppler
Systems.
Class 2
The maximum permissible deviation is ±0.25º. Bases of this accuracy
are suitable for carrying out standard swings, e.g. swinging of aircraft in
which the primary heading reference is provided by a remote-reading
compass system, with a direct-reading compass serving as a standby.
189
Compass Swing Procedure

Datum compass should be align with aircraft longitudinal axis at
a distance of 50 – 150 feet.
Sighting of aircraft longitudinal axis is indicated by two plumb
bobs suspended fore and aft of the fuselage.
– On compass rose, align the plumb bob with the marked line.
– Aircraft heading on the cardinal and quadrantal points offset
by 5 deg is allowed.
Before taking compass reading, allow short pause between
each heading and tapped
Malaysian compass
Institute gently.
Records all reading on a proper record forms.
– Adjust coefficient C, B, A
Deviation card to be raised.
– Detail of aircraft type and registration, compass type and
serial number, place and date to be recorded on the back.
190
Compass swing to be recorded in the aircraft log book.
Compass Rose
191
Compass Rose
192
Compass Rose
193
Compass Rose
194
Compass Swing Gears
195
Tail
Window stile
Prism
030
To read the reference compass, position the compass so that the window style and
the vertical stabilizer line up with the compasses lubber line. Make sure the
reference compass is adjusted horizontally before reading.
196
Compass Swing Cardinal and Quadrantal Points
197
198
Deviation Compensation and Recording
199
Steer by Card (Large Aircraft)
200
Steer by Card (Small Aircraft)
201
202
Instrument Pneumatic System

Purpose
Gyro vacuum supply
De-icer
Venturi System
2 in Hg – for Turn and Slip Indicator
4 in Hg – for Gyro Horizon and Directional Gyro
Vacuum Pump
Vane type-Wet Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology
– use oil for cooling and sealing

– disadvantage – oil contaminated the air
Vane type-Dry
– use self lubricating carbons vane 203
Venturi System
Consists of:
Venturi tube
– Inner venturi induced
suction of 2 inch Hg for turn
and slip indicator.
– Outer venturi induced
suction of 4 inch Hg to
operates the attitude and
heading indicators.
Filter Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology
– Ensure dust-free air

entering system.
Gauge
– Measures the suction
pressure
204
Vacuum Pump-Wet
Consists of:
Vacuum Pump
– Engine oil metered into the
pump for cooling and sealing.
Oil Separator
– To circulate oil to the engine
crankcase.
Regulator
– Monitor the vacuum pressure.
Filter
– To ensure clean and dust free
air enter the system.
Gauge
– To monitor vacuum pressure.
205
Consists of: Vacuum Pump-Dry

 Vacuum Pump
– Uses graphite vane that is self lubricated.
 Regulator
– Monitor the vacuum pressure.
 Filter
– To ensure clean and dust free air enter the system.
 Gauge
– To monitor vacuum pressure.
206
Positive Pressure System

Aircraft that fly at high altitude need a positive pressure pump to make
pneumatic system operates efficiently.
To overcomes this, vacuum pump is installed upstream of the pneumatic
system.
Uses 2 filters.
207
Pneumatic Pump Maintenance
Schedule maintenance for filter replacement/cleaning.

(Refer Aircraft Maintenance Manual).
208
Pitot-Static System
A system in which total pressure created by the

forward motion of the aircraft and static pressure
of the atmosphere surrounding it are sensed and
measured in terms of:
Speed
Altitude
Rate of change of altitude
209
210
211
Basic Pitot-Static consists of:
Pressure Head
– Known as pitot-static probe, consist of static slots,
pitot tube, drain hole and heating element.
– If only pitot pressure is collected through the tube, it
is called Pitot Tube or Pitot Head.
– It should beMalaysian
covered if the
Institute aircraft
of Aviation is park to avoid
Technology
foreign object entering the tube.

– Warning flag, red in colour, with word ‘REMOVED
BEFORE FLIGHT’ to be attached to the pitot cover.
212
Pressure Head
213
Static Vent
– Also known as static port, it is located at the aircraft fuselage
and are position where there are least disturbance from the
air flow.
– Independent static vents, when fitted are always located one
on each side of a fuselage and interconnected so as to
balance out dynamic pressure effects resulting from any
yawing or sideslip motion of an aircraft.
– The static vent mounting plate should not painted and must
be cleaned and smooth.
– If aircraft is park the static vent should be blanked and the
warning flag “REMOVED BEFORE FLIGHT’ should be
attached.
214
Static Port
215
Drain Trap
216
 Pipeline
– Pitot and static pressures are transmitted through seamless
corrosion-resistant metal (light alloy/or tungum) pipeline.
– Flexible pipes (maricon tubing) are used for connection of
components mounted on anti-vibration mountings.
– The minimum requirement diameter of the pipeline is 0.25
inch or 6mm.
– The piping are marked by a letter P or S.
Drain Trap/Drain Valve
– Allow drainingMalaysian
of waterInstitute of Aviation Technology
accumulated in the piping using
spring loaded action.
– Drain traps are located at the lowest point of the piping
run/route.
217
Pitot-Static Instruments
– Airspeed Indicator (ASI)
• Requires pitot and static pressure.
• ASI measure the differential pressure between pitot/static.
– Altimeter
• Requires static pressure only
• Altimeter measures absolute pressure.
• If a leak occurs on a pressurised aircraft – under read, unpressurised
aircraft - ????
– Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)
• Requires static pressure only
• VSI measures rate of change of altitude pressure.
– Machmeter
• Requires pitot and static pressure.
218
Pitot-Static System on Modern Aircraft
219
220
221
222
223
Centralized Air Data Unit

CADU is introduced to minimized the ‘plumbing’ arrangement of
pitot/static system.
Pressures are detected and centralized in one unit (ADC-air
data computer) and then transmitted electrically to the
system/indicators that requires it.
A system that utilizes the pitot static pressure and total air
temperature to get altitude, true air speed, vertical speed,
mach, SAT, TAT etc.
Aircraft that operate at high
Malaysian speeds
Institute and
of Aviation high altitudes can have
Technology
significant errors in the pitot-static system instruments with
simple probes used on smaller aircraft.
These aircraft will use an air data computer (ADC) to operate
the ASI, altimeter, VSI, and any other systems that require the
data. 224
Air Data Computer (ADC)
225

ADC has three inputs:
Pitot pressure from the pitot probes
Static pressure from the static ports
Total air temperature from the TAT probe
ADC outputs are:

Altitude
Indicated Airspeed
True airspeed
Machmeter
Vertical speed
Static air temperature
Total air temperature 226

Electro-mechanical ADC
Force balance transducer as a measuring device.
Uses shaft rotation from transducers .
Electrical ADC (called CADC)
Force balance transducer as a measuring device.
Uses electrical signal from transducers.
Digital ADC (DADC)
Uses pressure sensor as a measuring element
– Diaphragm with small magnet in centre and pickup coil at the bottom of
diaphragm
– Silicon diaphragm contains diffused piezo resistors.
– Capacitance transmitter.
Input are fed to microprocessor via ARINC 429.
227
ADC – Electro
Mechanical
228
Computation of Mach Number
Mach number = (P-

S)/S
Since analogue
computer cannot
compute division,
then; log (P-S) – log
(S)
Hence, log cam and
anti-log cam is used.
229
Computation of Vertical Speed

The output from
tacho generator is
proportional to the
rate of change of
static pressure.
ICAO law cam
represent ICAO
pressure height.
Feedback signal Malaysian
is Institute of Aviation Technology
via a follow up pot to

null off signal to the
amplifier.
230
Computation of Height
ICAO law cam

provide correct
pressure/height
PE error cam
corrected errors due
to incorrect pressure
to transducer.
PE due to speed is
from the mach
computation Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology
231
Computation of Airspeed
P-S is dynamic pressure and this is equal to ½ρV²
The cam on the output shaft modifies the shaft rotation to supply square law
compensation.
232
TAS Computation
True airspeed is computed according to the formula TAS = aM
(a = local speed of sound. M = Mach number)
Local speed of sound = C√T
(T = True airspeed temperature (SAT). C = Constant)
TAS = C √ T X M
233
ADC – Electro Mechanical
234
CADC – Electrical
235
CADC – Electrical
236
237
DADC – Digital Air Data

Computer
238
239
DADC – Digital Air Data Computer
Pitot-Static leak Test

To determine the rate of leak of a pitot-static system.
Rate of leak is measured in feet per min or knot per minute.
Different aircraft has different leak rate – always refer to
aircraft MM.
Leak test on pitot-static system is carried out when;
– The pitot static piping and instrument are disturbed
(remove/install).
– Suspect of a leak in the pitot static system/instrument.
– It is called for in the task card when aircraft comes in for a
maintenance visit. (Every 24 month)
– When the drain holes of the pressure head is disturbed.
240
Procedures
Pitot Leak Test
Connect up Pitotstatic Tester to the pitot head
using adaptor.
Pump in positive pressure slowly to make
airspeed indicator pointer reads V ne – red
radial line.
– Caution: about ½ PSI is required to make ASI read
150 knots.
Retain pressure for 1 minute.
If ASI reading drop more than 10 knots means
there is a leak in the pitot pipelines.
Trace leak from the indicator to source.
241
Pitot-Static
Leak Tester
242
Procedures
Static Leak Test
Connect up Pitotstatic Tester to the static port
using adaptor.
Pump in negative pressure slowly to make
altimeter reads more than 1,000 feet above
current reading.
– Caution: When applying suction to the system do not
exceed the vertical speed indicator maximum limit.
Retain pressure
Malaysianfor 1 minute.
If altimeter reading drop more than 100 feet

means there is a leak in the static pipelines.
Trace leak from the indicator to source using
soap water.
243
Caution when working on Pitot Static System

 The amount of pressure required for 150 MPH indication is
less than ½ PSI .
– Avoid high pressure as instruments damage will result.
 Do not apply suction to pitot pressure lines.
 When applying or releasing suction, take care not to exceed
rate range of vertical speed indicator.
 Do not apply pressure to static lines with instruments
connected.
 Never blow through the pitot or static lines toward the
instruments.
– Doing so may damage them.
244
Fuel Quantity Indicating System(FQIS)
Purpose
To indicate to the pilot the quantity of fuel in
volume using simply mechanical devices.
To indicate to the pilot the quantity of fuel in
mass/weight using electrical/electronic system.
Type:
Mechanical
Electrical
Electronic
245
Fuel Quantity Indicating System (FQIS)

Mechanical
Sight glass
– Direct reading on the fuel tank.
Dip stick
– Reading taken from upper fuel tank.
Drip stick
– Reading taken from under underwing of aircraft.
Drop stick
– Fitted to aircraft underwing for calibration.
Float-type
– Uses linkages to show levelInstitute
Malaysian on gauge.of Aviation Technology
Electrical
Resistance-type
– Uses float, variable resistor and ratiometer.
Electronic
Capacitance-type
– Gauges are calibrated in mass (Ibs/kgs).
246
Mechanical FQIS
247
Mechanical FQIS
248
Mechanical FQIS
249
Electrical Resistance-type FQIS
250
FQIS – Fuel Tank

A Boeing 747-400 fully loaded with 216,389 liters (57,164 gallons)
of fuel is carrying about 175,275 kg (386,411 lbs)
at a fuel density of 0.810 g/mL (6.76 lbs/gal).
251
FQIS – Electronic Type
Known as capacitance-type FQIS.

Measures fuel quantity in mass (pound).
– Fuel has a density of 6.02 lbs/gallon at 15°C.
– Density increases to 6.40 lbs/gallon at minus 40°C.
Can measure fuel of irregular shape tank.
Its measures the valueInstitute
Malaysian of capacitance.
– Capacitance = dielectric X area / distance

– Dielectric constant of air = 1
– Dielectric constant of fuel = 2
252
Fuel Probe construction
253
254
FQIS – Electronic Type

Construction
Fuel tank
– Left, right and center.
Tank units
– Called fuel probe which is an AC capacitor.
– Connected in parallel to increase total capacitance.
Compensator unit
– Function is to compensate temperature changes.
Co-axial cable
– A low impedance type of cable.
– It is able to suppress external influences.
Cockpit indicator
– Located on the cockpit to monitor fuel quantity.
Repeater station
– Located at refueling station to monitor refueling/defueling.
255
FQIS – Tank Unit
256
257
FQIS – Cockpit Indicator
258
FQIS – Cockpit Indicator
259
FQIS – Refueling Station
260
FQIS – Calibration
261
Fuel Monitoring Systems
These systems are used to measure amount

of fuel consumed by an engine. It can be
measure by the pressure, rate of flow and
also by viscosity of fuel flow and measures
In:
Pound per sq inch (PSI)
Volume per hour (GPH)
Weight per hour (PPH)
262
Fuel Pressure Indicator
Detect pressure at the

fuel line to the engine and
measure by use of
bourdon tube and the
scale is in PSI or GPH.
263
Fuel Flow Indicator
264
Fuel Flow Indicator
265
Fuel Flow Indicator
266
Vane Type Flowmeter
The amount of flow of

fuel will rotate the
vane in the sensor and
also will rotate the
rotor of an autosyn
transmitter.
The autosyn
receiver(indicator) will Institute of Aviation Technology
Malaysian
measure volume of
fuel in gallon per hour.
267
Mass Fuel Flowmeter

Consist of a turbine placed in line with a motor (constant 60 RPM) that swirl the
fuel. The viscosity of the fuel will determines the force placed on the turbine.
The turbine also rotates the rotor of the magnesyn transmitter. The rate of the
fuel flow will be displays on the receiver (indicator) in pound per hour.
268
Mass Fuel Flowmeter
269
Auxiliary Instruments
Outside Air Temperature (OAT)
– Measure SAT (Static Air Temperature).
– SAT – Temperature of the still air surrounding the aircraft.
Total Air Temperature (TAT)
– If aircraft travel more then 0.2 Mach the OAT will give an
over read reading.
– Rise of temperature due to frictional heating by airflow on
the probe is Malaysian
called RAM RISE.
– TAT = SAT + ram rise
– Aircraft with this category will measure Total Air
Temperature (TAT) using Temperature Probe fitted by the
fuselage below the cockpit.
270
OAT and TAT
271
272
273
 An opening in the front of the sensor lets air flow through and around the
sensing elements and exit through ports in the rear of the probe.
 There are two sense elements in the TAT probe. Each sense element is
a resistive element. The value of resistance changes when the
temperature of the air flow across the element changes.
 The TAT probe gets bleed air from the APU duct in the keel beam.
 Bleed air into the probe makes a negative pressure inside the probe.
 The negative pressure pulls outside air across the sensing elements.
This permits accurate temperature
Malaysian Institute ofmeasurement when the airplane is
Aviation Technology
on the ground or moving at low speed.
 The analog connection to the ADIRUs and to the heater power
connection comes through the electrical connector. The heater in the
TAT probe prevents ice.
274
Auxiliary Instruments
CLOCK
Time is set as GMT
(Greenwich Mean Time) time
or (UTC – Universal Time
Coordinate)
Minus 8 hrs to Malaysian
local time. Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology
Should have stop watch

function to monitor engine
starting.
275
Digital Clock
Purpose
The clocks give time reference to the flight crew and other aircraft systems.
This is the data that the clock shows:
Time and date set manually from the clock
Global positioning system (GPS) time and date from the multi-mode
receiver (MMR)
Elapsed time
Chronograph time.
The captain clock sends time and date to these components:
Flight management computer
Malaysian (FMC)
Flight data acquisition unit (FDAU)
Voice recorder.
NOTE: The FMC does not use the clock data if the FMC is programmed to
use the GPS.
276
277
278
279
CHECKING INSTRUMENTS
The maintenance checks to be carried out on instruments are concerned with
security, visual defects, functioning and performance tests. Precise details of
these checks are given in the AMM. The information in the following paragraphs
is a guide to the general practices.
Checks should be made for:
Security of attachment of instrument panel – check anti vibration mountings and
bonding leads.
Security of electrical connections, pipe connections, etc.
Evidence of cracking of cases and mounting flanges. Cover glasses should always
be carefully inspected for cracks which could be caused by glancing blows from
safety harness fittings, head sets, etc, and are often difficult to detect.
Dial markings and pointers are legibility, discoloration and flaking.
Malaysian Institute
Correct pointer position/counter readout.of Aviation Technology
Cables for security, chafing, moisture ingress, etc.
Security of attachment of the instrument and any signs of moisture ingress.
Correct functioning of lights, warning flags, etc.
Correct functioning of any ‘press to test’ facility.
Security of attachment, correct locking, damage, contamination and corrosion of
transducers and associated wiring and or pipeline.
280
Maintenance Practices
Maintenance crew are not allow to repair aircraft instruments
and are limited to perform installation, replacement,
adjustment and marking of instruments.
Inspection and Maintenance
The checks to be carried out on individual instruments and
associated components are primarily concerned with security,
visual defects, circuit testing and calibration tests.
Precise details of these checks are given in relevant instrument
and aircraft Maintenance Manuals and reference should always
be made to suchMalaysian
documents.
The following summary and the information given in

subsequent paragraphs serves as a guide to checks of a
general nature and to specific inspections and tests related to
the instruments covered by this Leaflet.
The summary of checks:
281
Summary of Checks
Security of attachment to instrument panels and appropriate parts of
the airframe or engine structure.
Security and cleanliness of pressure and electrical connections.
Evidence of cracking of cases, bezel mounting flanges and cover
glasses. The latter should always be carefully inspected as cracks
caused by glancing blows struck by safety harness fittings, head
sets, etc., are often difficult to detect.
Checking of dials markings, counters and pointers for legibility,
discolouration and flaking.
Checking of coloured operational markings.
Presence of moisture or water inside the cover glasses or on the
dials of instruments connected to a static pressure source, e.g.
power loss indicators.
Smoothness of pointer movements during functional testing and
under engine operating conditions.
At the specified maintenance check periods or at any time
instruments or associated components are suspected of
malfunctioning, they should be removed from an aircraft and the
282
relevant bench checks and testes carried out.
Equipment and Instrument Mounting

As an aircraft maintenance personal, it is
called for to check for the mounting of
instrument Panel/Platform and also to
check for Bonding braid/strip.
Check for breakage or corrosion.
283
Bonding Jumpers
284
Power Requirement
If it is requires to do an extra electrical
installation, load test are to be carried out
to ensure that the total load used did not
exceed the output of the generator or
alternator.Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology
285
Range Markings
These markings take the form of coloured arcs, radial lines and sector applied
to the scales of the instruments, their purpose being to highlight specific limits
of operation of the systems with which the instruments are associated.
RED radial line
– Maximum and minimum limits
YELLOW arc
– Precautionary ranges
GREEN arc
– Normal operating range
RED arc Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology
– Range in which operation is prohibited
WHITE arc
– Airspeed range with landing flap extended
Note: if range marking are on the glass of the indicator a slippage marking is to
be marked white from the glass to the casing.
286
ASI – Range Markings RPM Indicator – Range Markings
287
Radio is a method of transmitting intelligence

from one location to another by means of
electromagnetic radiation.
FREQUENCY RANGE BAND
Very Low Frequency (VLF) 3 to 30 kHz
Low Frequency (LF) 30 to 300 kHz
Medium Frequency (MF) 300 to 3000 kHz
High Frequency (HF) 3 to 30 MHz
Very High Frequency (VHF) 30 to 300

Malaysian Institute of Aviation MHz
Technology
Ultra High Frequency (UHF) 300 to 3000 MHz
Super High Frequency (SHF) 3 to 30 GHz (Giga Hertz)
Extremely High Frequency (EHF) 30 to 300 GHz

• Simple vertical antennas have omnidirectional characteristics in that they transmit

and receive in a 360o pattern,
– They are used for communication.
• Horizontally polarized antennas are basically directional,
– They are primarily used for navigation.
A radio wave has two components,

an electric wave (E) and a magnetic wave (H)

RADIO Wave Propagation

 There is a definite relationship between the length of the wave and its
frequency.
 The higher the frequency, the shorter the distance between the ends of
the wave.

Simplified Voice Radio System

Consist of :
 Microphone
 Transmitter
 Transmitter antenna
 Receiving antenna
 Receiver
 Headset/loudspeaker
Basic radio transmitter
Master oscillator : provide the carrier frequency, tuned by frequency

synthesizer
Modulator : superimposed information (Morse code, voice, etc)
on the carrier wave
Amplifier : increase radio signal strength
Antenna : transmit radio signal
Basic radio receiver (superhetrodyne)
Antenna : received radio signals

Amplifier : increase signal strength
Local oscillator : tuned to different frequencies by frequency synthesizer
Mixer : convert r.f. to constant intermediate frequency by mixing
the received signal with the l.o. output and taking the
difference frequency
Detector : separate or detect audio/information from carrier
Very High Frequency Communication System

• supplies communication over line-of-sight distances
• communication between airplanes or between ground stations and
airplanes
295
• Consists of 3 main parts; control unit, transceiver and antenna
296
VHF control unit

297
298
VHF transceiver
299
300
VHF antenna
301
302
• 720 channels from 118 Mhz through 135.975 Mhz

• 25 kHz spacing
• Receiver disabled during transmit – push to talk (ptt)
• Antenna : vertically polarized and omnidirectional
• Squelch : disables the receiver output when no signals are
being received so preventing noise being fed to the crew
headsets between transmissions.
303
Collins VHF-20A block diagram
304
High Frequency Communication System

• supplies voice communication over long distances
• gives communication between airplanes or between
ground stations and airplanes
• frequency range of 2 MHz to 29.999 MHz, 1kHz spacing
• the system uses the surface of the earth and an ionized
layer to cause a reflection (skip) of the communication
signal
• the distance between skips changes
Malaysian Institute due to the time of
day, radio frequency, and airplane altitude
305
306
307
HF control unit 308

HF transceiver 309
310
311
Antenna
• Wire
• Slot
• Notch
• Probe
• Whip
• Blade
312
Wire antenna
• copper-clad steel or phosphor bronze
• Normally a single span between forward fuselage
and vertical stabilizer
• Larger aircraft will have twin antennas while a
single installation, possibly in ‘V’ configuration is
more common for small aircraft
• RF feed : forward attachment via antenna mast
• Rear tethering :
a tensioning unit
a weak link provided to ensure any break
occurs at the rear, prevent the wire wrapping
the vertical stabilizer/rudder
313
314
Notch antenna
• Sometimes refereed to as an open-ended
antenna
• Used in cases where a broad-band radiator
is necessary and pseudo-sheet-metal areas
are available such as in the empennage of
an aircraft,Malaysian
that is, the leading or trailing
edges of wings or rudders
• A slot cut into the aircraft structure, often at
the base of the vertical stabilizer
315
316
Probe antenna
• Aerodynamically acceptable
• Fitted at either of the wing-tips or on top of
the vertical stabilizer
• Liable to suffer lightning strikes – lightning
arrester (spark gap)
• High resistance
Malaysian static
Institute of drains – connected
Aviation Technology
between antenna feed point and ATU, to

prevent build-up of precipitation static
charges
317
318
Whip antenna
• Simplest antenna, bent whip antenna for
aircraft VHF communications
• A wire rod (of proper length) sticking above
the metal skin of the aircraft
• Have correct length for only one frequency –
other frequency, antenna
Malaysian Institute will
of Aviation not be a
Technology
proper load for the transmitter, so not all

power will be transferred to antenna
319
320
Blade antenna
• Found on large antenna

• Aerodynamically acceptable and more
complex in its construction
• Reactive network will permit an
improvement in Institute
Malaysian height andTechnology
of Aviation hence drag
reduction (high speed aircraft)
321
322
Automatic Direction Finder
• The ADF receiver uses amplitude modulated (AM) signals from ground
stations to calculate the bearing to the ADF station from the airplane
longitudinal axis
•The ADF system also receives standard AM radio broadcasts
•Receiver band : 100 – 2000 kHz
•Signal from broadcast stations and non-directional beacons (NDB)
•Usually two systems, ADF1 and ADF2
•When tuned to two distinct stations or beacons, would automatically
drive two pointers on radio magnetic indicator (RMI) so that each pointer
gave the bearing of Malaysian
the corresponding stationTechnology
Institute of Aviation
•The aircraft position is where the two directions intersect
•Loop antenna : consists of an orthogonal pair of coils wound on a single
flat ferrite core
•Sense antenna : gives station direction to received signal


RMI-Radio Magnetic Indicator

ADF System


ADF antenna
ADF control panel

Function Selection
ADF
 circuit are selected to determine automatically the bearing to the
station which is displayed on the RMI.
Both sense and loop antenna circuit operate
ANT Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology
Used for reception of audio signal such as weather broadcast and
radio range signal
Only the sense antenna circuit are utilized
Radio Magnetic Indicator

VHF omnidirectional range (VOR)
• The VHF omnidirectional ranging (VOR) system is a navigation

aid that gives magnetic bearing data from a VOR ground station
to the airplane.
• The VOR ground stations transmit signals that give magnetic
radial information from 000 degrees to 359 degrees. All VOR
stations reference the 000 degree to magnetic north.
• Frequency range : 108-118MHz (shared with ILS localizer)
• Channel spacing : 50kHz
• VOR occupy 160 of 200 available channels
• Of the 160 :- 120 for en route navigation stations 112-118MHz
40 for terminal VOR stations (TVOR) 108-118MHz
• Sometimes VOR stations co-located with DME stations called
VOR/DME station
• VOR stations radiates VHF energy modulated with a reference phase
signal (omnidirectional) and a variable phase signal (rotating beam)
VOR Station


• The bearing
Malaysianof the aircraft
Institute depends
of Aviation on the phase difference between
Technology
reference and variable phases.
• The receivers send VOR bearing to the remote magnetic
indicator (RMI). You can select the RMI bearing pointers to
show VOR or ADF station bearing with the RMI bearing pointer
selectors.
• VOR antenna employs horizontal polarization with an omnidirectional
radiation pattern



VOR antenna
VOR control panel

Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)
• a secondary, radar pulsed ranging system operating in the band 978-
1213 MHz
• Supplies slant range (line of sight) distance measurement between the
airplane and the ground station.
• The relationship between slant range, ground range and height is
S2 = G2 + (H/6080)2


Interrogator
• radiates coded r.f. pulse pairs at a frequency within the band 978 –
1213 MHz from an omnidirectional antenna
• Interrogation frequency range is 1025 – 1150 MHz
• Spacing 1 MHz
• Possible frequencies 126
• Search prf 40 – 150 average
• Track prf 10 – 30 average
Reply
• Omnidirectional radiation from ground beacon
• Reply frequency range is 962
Malaysian – 1213
Institute MHz Technology
of Aviation
• 63 MHz below or above the interrogation frequency
• Possible frequencies 252
• Once every 30 s the beacon transmits its identity in three letter of
Morse code which pilot hear as audio tone of 1350 Hz
OperationMalaysian Institute of Aviation Technology
The airborne DME computes slant-range distance to or from the station as
follows: R = (T – 50) / 12.359
R : slant range distance in nautical miles from beacon
T : time in microseconds (µs) between transmission of the
interrogation and reception of the reply
50 is 50 µs corresponding to the fixed beacon delay
12.359 µs is the time taken for r.f. energy to travel 1 nautical mile
and return
 Range : 0 – 200 nautical miles extended range up to 300 nm
 Effective Range =

 H1: height of ground DME H2 : height of the aircraft
 Channels : 1X – 126X and 1Y – 126Y
 DME used in conjunction with VOR and ILS (paired)
 For beacons, out of 252 channels, 52 is not used (because VOR and
ILS used 200 channels)
Frequency pairing
VHF nav. freq. VHF allocation channel
108.00 VOR 17X

108.05 VOR 17Y
108.10 ILS 18X
108.15 ILS 18Y
108.20 VOR 19X
. . .
. . .
: : of Aviation Technology
Malaysian Institute :
: : :
117.95 VOR 126Y
Channels not used :-

1X – 16X, 1Y – 16Y, 60X – 69X and 60Y – 69Y
Other information provided by DME
• Ground speed when aircraft fly directly towards or away from the
beacon
• Time to station (TTS)
TTS = DST / KTS
DST : slant range

KTS : ground speed (knots)
DME slant range and ground range calculation





Instrument Landing System (ILS)
• Under visual flight rules (VFR) i.e. without any indication from
instruments as to the aircraft position relative to the desired approach
path; the pilot must have at least 3 miles horizontal visibility with a
ceiling not less than 1000ft, to safely land the aircraft. Otherwise, can
use ILS.
• The instrument landing system (ILS) provides lateral and
vertical position data necessary to put the airplane on the
runway for approach. The system uses signals from a
glideslope ground station and a localizer ground station.
• The glideslope ground station
Malaysian transmits
Institute signals
of Aviation to give the
Technology
airplane a descent path to the touchdown point on the runway.
The localizer ground station transmits signals to give the airplane lateral
guidance to the runway centerline.

LocalizerMalaysian Institute of Aviation Technology
• 40 channels are allocated at 50 kHz spacing
• Frequency band : 108.10-111.95 MHz
• Using only those frequencies where the tenths of a megacycle count is
odd example 108.10 MHz, 108.15MHz
• Horizontally polarized radiated carrier is modulated by tones of 90Hz (to
the left) and 150Hz (to the right)
• If aircraft at the centre of path (course line) both signal is same strength
(90Hz signal=150Hz signal)
• Aircraft at left; 90Hz signal > 150Hz signal : course deviation indicator
fly-to-right
• Aircraft at right; 150hz signal > 90Hz signal : course deviation indicator
fly-to-left Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology
GlideslopeMalaysian Institute of Aviation Technology
• 40 frequencies (UHF band) paired with localizer frequencies
• Frequency band 328.6 – 335.4 MHz at 150kHz spacing
• radiated carrier is modulated by tones of 90Hz (upper beam) and
150Hz (lower)
• For big aircraft such as 747, glideslope antenna mounted on nose-
wheel gear doors
• If aircraft at the centre of path (course line) both signal is same strength
(90Hz signal=150Hz signal)
• Aircraft above glideslope; 90Hz signal > 150Hz signal : glideslope
indicator fly-down
• Aircraft below glideslope; 150hz signal < 90Hz signal : glideslope
indicator fly-up Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology
Malaysian Localizer/glideslope frequency pairing
• Each of the 40 frequencies allocated to the glideslope system is paired

with a localizer frequency, the arrangement being that localizer and
glideslope beacons serving the same runway
• When pilot select the localizer frequency, both localizer and glideslope
receivers to tune to the paired frequencies
Localizer Glidepath
108.10 334.70
108.15 334.55
108.30 334.10
108.35 333.95
108.50 329.90
: :
: :
: :
111.95 330.95



747 glideslope and localizer 737 glideslope antenna

antenna

Marker Beacon System
• The marker beacon system supplies visual and aural
indications when the airplane flies over airport runway
marker beacon transmitters.

• Carrier frequency : 75 MHz
Outer marker
• 4.5 miles from runway threshold
• Carrier amplitude-modulated by 400Hz signal keyed to give two
dashes per second
• Indication :- audio heard through Audio Integrating System
(AIS)
- blue (or purple) lamp to flash
Middle marker
• 3500 ft from runway threshold
• Carrier is amplitude-modulated by 1300Hz signal keyed to give a dot-
dash pair 95 times per minute
• Indication :- audio heard through AIS
- amber lamp to flash
Inner marker
• Also called an airways, fan or ‘Z’ marker
• Used also as position aid for en-route navigation
• Located at beginning (threshold) of runway
• Carrier modulated with a 3000Hz signal which causes a white lamp to
flash
• Station identification Morse code heard via AIS




ATC Transponder
• The air traffic control (ATC) ground stations interrogate the airborne
ATC system. The ATC transponder replies to the interrogations in the
form of coded information that the ground station uses.


• The ATC transponder also replies to mode S interrogations
from the traffic alert and collision avoidance systems (TCAS)
of other airplanes or ground stations.
• When a ground station or a TCAS computer from another

airplane interrogates the ATC system, the transponder
transmits a pulse-coded reply signal. The reply signal
identifies and shows the altitude of the airplane.
• The two antennas transmit signals from the ATC transponder

and send received signals to the ATC transponder. These
signals go through the ATC coax switches.
• The ATC/TCAS control panel sends identification and control

data to the transponders. The ATC/TCAS control panel also
allows selection of either transponder 1 or transponder 2.

Interrogation
• By secondary surveillance radar (SSR) ; primary surveillance radar

(PSR) not interrogate, but function as radar, reflected energy gives the
aircraft range and bearing to the ATC ground station
• Consists of a pair of pulses of r.f. energy
• Pulses are 0.8 µs and at frequency of 1030 MHz
• The spacing between the pulses represents the modes
• Four modes ;
Mode A – identity
Mode B – identity
Mode C - Altitude
Mode D - unassigned

Reply
• pulsesMalaysian Institute of Aviation Technology
of frequency 1090 MHz
• by transponder on aircraft
• When valid interrogation received
• Reply according to interrogation mode
Reply train format
• The resulting code is binary coded octal

A4 A2 A1 Selection
0 0 0 0
0 Malaysian
0 Institute of Aviation
1 Technology 1
0 1 0 2
0 1 1 3
1 0 0 4
1 0 1 5
1 1 0 6
1 1 1 7
Group A code selection (similarly for groups B, C and D)
• Some of the code
Malaysian combinations
Institute are
7600 Radio failure

7700 Emergency
7500 Hijack
example of pulse train for given number


Air Traffic Controller display



Weather Radar
• WXR operates on the same principle as an echo. The WXR

system transmits radio frequency (RF) pulses in a 180 degree
area forward of the airplane. Objects reflect the pulses back to
the receiver. The receiver processes the return signal to show
weather, terrain, and windshear events.

• Weather radarInstitute
Malaysian operation depends
of Aviation on three facts :
Technology
1. precipitation scatters r.f. energy
2. the speed of propagation of an r.f. wave is known
3. r.f. energy can be channeled into a highly directional
beam
range, R = ct/2
c = speed of light, 162 000 nautical miles

per second
t = elapsed time
divisor 2 is because the wave travel
Malaysian
towards the Institute
target andof Aviation
back Technology
• Range at least 180 nautical miles up to 300 nautical miles

• Range marks at 25 nautical miles intervals up to 100 nm
• Range selections available 30/80/180 or 30/100/300 or 30/80/180
• Radio Malaysian
frequency Institute of Aviation Technology
C-band 5400 MHz + 20 MHz
X-band 9375 MHz + 20 MHz or

9345 MHz + 20 MHz
• Displayed sector : at least + 90o

• Display colour
green light rainfall
yellow medium rainfall
red Institute of Aviation
Malaysian heavyTechnology
rainfall or storm core
Weather radar colour representation

Other applications for weather radar
• Mapping
• Drift indication
• Beacon interrogation
Because the frequency used for weather radar is a very high frequency,
the connection between transceiver and antenna is by the means of
waveguide since if we use coax cable the signal is greatly attenuated
(very high loss).



Weather radar antenna assembly (parabolic antenna)

Modern weather radar antenna –flat antenna


Radio Altimeter
• The radio altimeter (RA) system measures the vertical distance from the
airplane to the ground.

• Frequency range : 4210 MHz – 4390 MHz
• Altitude range : from 2500 ft to a few feet ‘below touchdown’ example

B737 range is -12ft to 2500ft
• Two separate antenna ; transmitter and receiver






Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance
System (TCAS)
• maintain safe air traffic separation from other ATC transponder equipped
airplanes.
• TCAS is an airborne system and operates independently of the ground-
based ATC system.
• TCAS sends interrogation signals to nearby airplanes. These airplanes
which are equipped with an air traffic control radar beacon system
(ATCRBS) transponder or an air traffic control (ATC) mode S
transponder respond to these interrogations. TCAS uses these response
signals to calculate the range, relative bearing, and altitude of the
responding airplane. If a responding airplane does not report altitude,
TCAS cannot calculate the altitude of that airplane. Airplanes tracked by
TCAS are called targets.

• Using Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology
the information from the response signals and altitude of its own
airplane, TCAS calculates the relative movement between its own
airplane and the target. TCAS then calculates how close the target will
be to own airplane at the closest point of approach (CPA).
• Targets are classified as one of these four types depending on the
separation at CPA and the time it will take until CPA occurs:
* Other traffic
* Proximate traffic
* Intruders
* Threats
Each type of target has a different symbol on the display.


• A TCAS Non-Threat Intruder is an Open White Diamond. When
designated for rendezvous, Non-Threat Intruders will change to an
Open Diamond with a square outline all cyan in color.

• A TCAS Proximity
Malaysian Institute Intruder
of Aviation is a Closed White Diamond. When
Technology
designated for rendezvous, Proximity Intruders will change to a
Closed Diamond with a square outline all cyan in color.

• A TCAS Traffic
Malaysian Advisory
Institute (TA)Technology
of Aviation Intruder is a Closed Yellow Circle. When
designated for rendezvous, TA Intruders will simply be enclosed by a
Yellow square outline. (Designated intruders will initiate “Traffic, Traffic”
audio when they become a TA).

• A TCAS Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology
Resolution Advisory (RA) Intruder is a Closed Red Square with
a White Border. A Designated Intruder, which is classified as an RA
threat, will appear the same as a normal RA intruder. (Designated
intruders will become RA’s and initiate a maneuver command if the
TCAS mode is TA/RA).
• The traffic altitude tag will continue to be displayed above or below the
symbol to indicate relative altitude. The altitude rate arrow will continue
to be located to the right of the symbol.



Instruments and and Avionic System

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Instruments and and Avionic System

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Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

A device for measuring, recording, or controlling, especially such a

Aircraft Instruments can be referred as gauges, indicators or tools.

Categories according to presentation

Categories according to means of operation

They are group by how they are operated.

Panels and Layout

Type of Instrument Panels

Panels and Layout

Basic ‘T’ Panel

Basic 6 and Basic T

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

P1 - is used to mount flight and

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Electronic/Glass Cockpit Panel

– displays Navigational Display (ND)

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

May be measured directly by:

Elements of Pressure Measuring Instrument

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Differential Pressure Measurement

Absolute Pressure Measurement

Differential Pressure Measurement

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Diaphragm and capsule 30

Engine Pressure Ratio (EPR)

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

QNE (ICAO standard

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Radar Altimeter Transmitter/Receiver

Uses antenna installed

Types of Altitude Measurement

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

So, the basic idea of calculating density altitude is to

altitude of the aircraft.

Airspeed Indicator (ASI)

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Airspeed Indicator (ASI)

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Air Speed Indicator

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

ASIR (Airspeed Indicator Reading)

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Maximum Allowable Airspeed Indicator