Dvanced Ynchronous Achine Heory: A S M T

ADVANCED SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE THEORY
Pictorial representation of a
synchronous machine.
12/8/21 10:51 AM ASMT UNIT-1 GSB EEE CBIT 2 1

Where
3
4
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Now calculating P-1 for Park’s Transformation P
9
It is similar to P Transpose
P-1 = Pt Transformation P is “ORTHOGONAL”

Transformation P is Power Invariant Same power expression for
a-b-c or o-d-q Frames
10
12/8/21 10:51 AM ASMT UNIT-1 GSB EEE CBIT 3

Flux Linkage equations :
tor
LaR
St a
Laa
Stator to Stator Stator to Rotor
LRa
Rotor to Stator
LRR
Rotor to Rotor 11
r
to
Ro

Stator self-inductances
The phase-winding self-inductances are given by
12
Rotor self-inductances
13
Stator mutual inductances
14
Rotor mutual inductances

15
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Stator-to-rotor mutual inductance
16
17
18

Transformation of inductances
19

20
where we have defined the following new constants,
21
22

Voltage Equations
Schematic diagram of a synchronous machine

Rabc
0
iabc
Vabc
0
23
VFDQ
RFDQ
iFDQ
24

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26
Where
27
28

29
30
31
32
33
34

For balanced conditions the zero-sequence voltage is zero.
To simplify the notation, let 35
36

Formulation of State-Space Equations
The objective is to derive a set of equations describing the
synchronous machine in the form
37
Where x = a vector of the state variables

u= the system driving functions
f = a set of nonlinear functions
If the equations describing the synchronous machine are linear
38
By examining (35), we can see that it represents a set of first-order
differential equations. We may now put this set in the form of (37)or
(38). i.e. state-space form.

Current Formulation
Starting with (35) we can replace the terms in and by terms in i

and as follows. The A term bas been simplified so that we can
compute its value from (4 which we rearrange in partitioned form. Let
Where is the transpose of . But the inductance matrix here is a

constant matrix, so we may write and the term behaves
exactly like that of a passive inductance. Substituting this result into (35),
expanding to full 6 x 6 notation, and rearranging.

Per Unit Conversion
Choosing a base for stator quantities

The variables are stator quantities
because they relate directly to the a-b-c phase quantities
through Park’s transformation. Using the subscript B to indicate
“base” and R to indicate “rated”, we choose the following
stator
12/8/21base quantities.ASMT UNIT-1 GSB EEE CBIT
10:51 AM 19
40
Before proceeding further, let us examine the effect of this

choice on the d and q axis quantities.
The three-phase power in pu is three times the pu power per phase
(for balanced conditions).
let the rms phase quantities be and

The three-phase power is
The pu power P3ø is given by

41
where the subscript u is used to indicate pu quantities.

To obtain the d and q axis quantities, we first write the
instantaneous phase voltage and currents. To simplify the
expression without any loss of generality,
we will assume that is in the form.
42
By applying Park’s Transformation converting a-b-c to o-d-q

43
44
45
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ASMT UNIT-1 GSB EEE CBIT 21
47 48
To check the validity of the above, the power in the d and q

circuits must be the same as the power in the three stator
phases, since P is a power-invariant transformation.
49

From Eq (40)
50
Thus by choosing the three base quantities SB, VB and tB
we can compute base values for all quantities of interest,
To normalize any quantity, it is divided by the base quantity of the same
dimension. For example, for currents
51
where the subscript u is to indicate pu.

Chooing a base for rotor quantities
For the synchronous machine the choice of SB is based on

the rating of the stator, and the time base is fixed by the
rated radian frequency. These base quantities must be the
same for the rotor circuits as well. It should be
remembered, however, that the stator VA base is much
larger than the VA rating of the rotor (field) circuits. Hence
some rotor base quantities are bound to be very large,
making the corresponding pu rotor quantities appear
numerically small. Therefore, care should be exercised in
the choice of the remaining free rotor base term, since all
other rotor base quantities will then be automatically
determined. There is a choice of quantities, but the
question is, Which is more convenient?
To illustrate the above, consider a machine having a stator
rating of 100 x 106 VA/ phase. Assume that its exciter has a
rating of 230 V and 1000 A. if, for example, we choose IRB =
1000 A, VRB will then be 100,000 V; and if we choose VRB = 250
V, then IRB will be 400,000 A.
Is one choice more convenient than the other? Are there other
more desirable choices? The answer lies in the nature of the
coupling between the rotor and the stator circuits. It would
seem desirable to choose some base quantity in the rotor to
give the correct base quantity in the stator. For example, we
can choose the base rotor current to give, through the magnetic
coupling, the correct base stator flux linkage or open circuit
voltage. Even then there is some latitude in the choice of the
base rotor current, depending on the condition of the magnetic
circuit.
The choice made here for the free rotor base quantity is based
on the concept of equal mutual flux linkages. this means that
base field current or based d axis amortisseur current will
produce the same space fundamental of air gap flux as
produced by base stator current acting in the fictitious d
winding.
Referring to the flux linkage equations (20) let id = IB, iF = IFB
and iD = IDB be applied one by one with other current set to
zero. If we denote the magnetizing inductances
( = leakage inductances) as
52

equate the mutual flux linkages in each winding,
53
54
55

56
57
The d axis stator EMF corresponding to the field flux linkage is given by
58 Peak stator voltage the rms value
denoted by
The d axis stator EMF corresponds to field voltage VF
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59
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Problem :

39

Normalizing the Voltage Equations
From Eq (39)
60
where12/8/21
the first three equations
10:51 AM ASMTare on a GSB
UNIT-1 stator
EEEbase
CBIT and 32
he last three are on a rotor base.
61
By setting
Incorporating base values from (50) rewriting (61) as
62

Recognize the following Pu quantities.
63
Incorporating (63), the d axis equation (62) may be rewritten

with all values except the time in pu ; i.e.
64

The third equation of (60) may be analyzed in a similar
way to write
65
where all pu coefficients have been previously defined. The first
equation is uncoupled from the others and may be written as
66
If the currents are balanced, it is easy to
show that this equation vanishes
12/8/21 10:51 AM 35
The fourth equation is normalized on a rotor basis and may be
written from (60) as
67
We now incorporate the base rotor inductance to normalize the last two
terms as
68
The normalized field circuit equation becomes
69

The damper winding equations can be normalized by a similar
procedure. The following equations are then obtained.
70
71

These normalized equations are in a form suitable for solution in the time
domain with time in seconds. However, some engineers prefer to rid the
equations of the awkward that accompanies every term containing a
time derivative. This may be done by normalizing time. We do this by
setting
72
where 73 is the normalized time in rad.

Incorporating all Normalized Equations in a matrix expression and
dropping the subscript u since all values are in pu, we write
Equation (74) is Identical in notation to (39). This is

always possible if base quantities are carefully chosen
and is highly desirable, as the same equation
symbolically serves both as pu and a “system quantity”
Equation.
Using74matrix notation (74) as :
where we have omitted the Vo equation, since we are interested in

balanced 10:51 AM conditionsASMT
12/8/21system UNIT-1 GSB EEE CBIT
in stability studies, and have rearranged 39
the equations to show the d and q coupling more clearly.
75
where R is the resistance matrix and is a diagonal matrix of
constants, N is the matrix of speed voltage inductance
coefficients, and L is a symmetric matrix of constant
inductances, If we assume that the inverse of the inductance
matrix exists, we may write
76
This equation has the desired state-space form. It does not

express the entire system behavior, however, so we have
additional equations to write.

Equation (76) may be depicted schematically by the
equivalent circuit shown in
Synchronous generator d-q equivalent circuit.

Figure above Note that all self and mutual inductances in the equivalent
circuit are constants, and pu quantities are implied for all quantities, including
time.12/8/21
Note also
10:51 AM the presence
ASMT of controlled
UNIT-1 sources
GSB EEE CBIT in the equivalent.41These
are due to speed voltage terms in the equations.
Example 2

Normalizing the Torque Equations
the swing equation :
77
The swing equation is normalized by dividing both sides of the equation by

a shaft torque that corresponds to the rated three-phase power at rated
speed (base three-phase torque), The result of this normalization was
found to be
78

The derivative is with respect to time in seconds. This normalization takes
into account the change in angular measurements from mechanical to
electrical radians and divides the equations by the base three-phase
torque. Equation (78) is the swing equation used to determine the speed
of the stator revolving MMF wave as a function of time. We need to couple
the electromagnetic torque Te determined by the generator equations, to
the form of (78). Since (78) is normalized to a three-phase base torque
and our chosen generator VA base is a per phase basis, we must use
care in combining the pu swing equation and the pu generator torque
equation. Rewriting (78) as
79
the expression used for Te must be in pu on a three-phase VA base.
Suppose we define
80

12/8/21 10:51 AM 81 44
The normalized swing equation.
82
83
the normalized swing equation
84
The time is in pu,

85

Forms of the swing equation
86
87
88
89

12/8/21 10:51 AM 90 46
Torque and Power
The total three-phase power output of a synchronous machine is given by
91
where the superscript t indicates the transpose of Vabc. But from (8) we
may write iabc = P-1 iodq with a similar expression for the voltage
vector. Then (91) becomes
P is orthogonal
The power output of a synchronous generator is invariant
under the transformation P ie.
92
For simplicity we will assume balanced but not necessarily
steady-state conditions.
93
Substituting for Vd and Vq from (36)
94
The three terms are identifiable as the rate of change of

stator magnetic field energy, the power transferred across
the air gap, and the stator ohmic losses respectively. The
machine torque
12/8/21 10:51 AM is obtained fromGSBthe
ASMT UNIT-1 EEEsecond
CBIT term 48
The machine torque is obtained from the second term
95
The same result can be obtained from a more rigorous
derivation. Starting with the three armature circuits and the
three rotor circuits, the energy in the field is given by
96
Now, recalling that the flux linkages can be expressed in terms of the
currents, we write from (20), expressed in pu.
97
Eq (95) can be written as
98
Suppose we express the total accelerating torque in the swing equation as
99
where Tm is the mechanical torque, Te is the electrical torque,

and Td is the damping torque. It is often convenient to write the
damping torque as
12/8/21 10:51 AM ASMT UNIT-1

where D is a damping constant.
100
GSB EEE CBIT
100 50
By using (81) and (98) the swing equation may be written as
101
where is defined by (85) and depends on the units used for and t.
Finally, the following relation between may be derived from (6),
102
Incorporating (101) and (102) into (76) we obtain
103
This matrix equation is in the desired state-space form as
given by (37). it is clear from (101) that the system is nonlinear. Note that the
“inputs” are v and Tm.
Equivalent circuit of a Synchronous Machine
For balanced conditions the normalized flux linkage equations
are obtained from (20) with the row for omitted.
104

= + +

We may rewrite the d-axis flux linkages as
105
using (51) and (55),
106

In pu, we usually call this quantity LAD i.e..
107
We can also prove that, in pu,
108
Similarly, for the q axis we define
109
If in each circuit the pu leakage flux linkage is subtracted, the remaining
flux linkage is the same as for all other circuits coupled to it. Thus
110
where
111
Similarly the pu q-axis mutual flux linkage is given by
112
we can represent the above relations by the circuits shown in Figure below
where we note that the currents add in the mutual branch. To complete the
equivalent circuit, we consider the voltage equations
Flux linkage inductances of a synchronous machine.

Direct axis equivalent circuit
113
114
115
Quadrature axis equivalent circuit.
116
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117
59
The Flux Linkage State-space Model
We now develop an alternate state-space model where
the state variables chosen are
From (110)
118
From (111) which we can incorporate into

(118) to get

Now define
119
120
Similarly, we can show that
121
where we define
122
the q axis currents are given by

Writing (118) and (123) in matrix form,
12/8/21 10:51 AM ASMT UNIT-1 GSB EEE CBIT

124 62
The Voltage equation.
The voltage equations are derived as follows from (36).
For the d equation
125
Using (124) and rearranging,
126
from (36)
127
Substituting for iF

128
63
Repeating the procedure for the D circuit.
129
The procedure is repeated for the q axis circuits.
For the vq equations we compute
130
From the q axis damper-winding equation,
131
Note that or appears in the above equations. This form is
convenient it saturation is to be included in the model since the mutual
inductances LAD and LAQ are the only inductances that saturate. If
saturation can be neglected the and terms can be eliminated.
The torque equation
From (95)
Using (124) we substitute for the currents to compute
132
We may also take advantage or the relation

33
The new electromechanical equation is given by
1

Machine equations with saturation neglected
If saturation is neglected, LAD and LAQ are constant.
Therefore, LMD and LMQ are also constant. The magnetizing
flux linkages and will have constant relationships to
the state variables as given by (120) and (121) We can
therefore eliminate and from the machine equations.
Substituting for as given in (120), in (118) and rearranging,
134

These currents are substituted in the d axis voltage equations of (36) to get
135
(36)
Similarly, the q axis equations are

(134)
136

The equation for the electrical torque is given by
13
7

The state-space model now becomes
The system described by (138) is in the form

Again the description of the system is not complete since
v and vq are functions of the currents and will depend on the

d
external load connections. The 7 x 7 matrix on the right side of
(138) contains state variables in several terms, and this matrix
form of the equation is not an appropriate form for solution. It
does, however, serve to illustrate the nonlinear nature of the
system.
13
Treatment of saturation
The flux linkage state-space model is convenient for
considering the effect of saturation because all the terms in the
state equations (126)—(133) are linear except for the
magnetizing flux linkage and . These are affected by
saturation or the mutual inductances LAD and LAQ and only
these terms need to be corrected for saturation. In the
simulation of the machine, either by digital or analog computer,
this can be accomplished by computing a saturation function to
adjust (120) and (121) at all times to reflect the state of the
mutual inductances. As a practical matter, the q axis
inductance LAQ seldom saturates, so it is usually necessary to
adjust only for saturation.
The procedure for including the magnetic circuit saturation. Let
the unsaturated values of the magnetizing inductances be LADO
and LAQO. The computations
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for
GSB
saturated
EEE CBIT
values of these
12/8/21 10:51 AM 70
inductances follow,
For salient pole machines
13
9
Saturation curve for
where Ks is a saturation factor determined from the

magnetization curve of the machine.
For a round-rotor machine,
140
To determine Ks for the d axis in (139). the following
procedure is suggested. Let the magnetizing current,
which is the sum of id + if + iD be iM. The relation
between and iM given by the saturation curve
shown in Fig. For a given value of the
unsaturated magnetizing current is iMo corresponding
to while the saturated value iMS. The saturation
function Ks is a function of this magnetizing current,
which in turn is a function of
To calculate the saturated magnetizing current iMS the current
increment needed to satisfy saturation,
is first calculated. Note that saturation begins at the threshold

value corresponding to a magnetizing current iMT For
flux linkages greater than the current increases
monotonically in an almost exponential way. Thus we may
write approximately
141
where As and Bs are constants to be determined from the

actual saturation curve.
Load Equations
From (103) and (138) we have a set of equations for each
machine in the form
142
There are a number of ways of representing the electrical load

on a synchronous generator. For example, we could consider
the load to be constant impedance, constant power, constant
current, or some composite of all three. For the present we
require a load representation that will illustrate the constraints
between the generator voltages, currents, and angular velocity.
These constraints are found by solving the net work, including
loads, given the machine terminal voltages. For illustrative
purposes here, the loadASMT
constraint
UNIT-1 GSB
isCBIT
EEE
satisfied by the simple
one12/8/21 10:51 AM
machine-infinite bus problem coming in next slide. 74
Synchronous machine connected to an Infinite bus
Consider the system of Figure given below where a
synchronous machine is connected to an infinite bus through a
transmission line having resistance Re and inductance Le. The
voltages and current for phase a only are shown, assuming no
mutual coupling between phases.
Synchronous
generator
loaded
by an infinite
bus.
By inspection of Figure above we can write

143
144
which we transform to the o-d-q frame of reference by
Park’s transformation:
145
146
(6)
147
148
where the quantity is known from (32).

Thus (145) may be written as
149
150
Thus even this simple load representation introduces

new nonlinearities, but the order of the system
remains at seven.

Current model
Incorporating (149) into system (75), we may write
1
15
2
15

153

4
15
The flux Linkage model
From (149) and substituting for id and iq in terms of flux
linkages.
155

156
Combining (155) with (135)
7
85
Similarly we combine (156) with (136) to get
158
Equations (157) and (158) replace the first and fourth rows in
(138) to give the complete state-space model. The resulting
equation is of the form
159
160
161
162
Equaiion(163) is in the
desired form, i.e., in the
Form of and
completely describes the
system. It contains two
types of nonlinearities,
product nonlinearities and
trigonometric functions.
163
Sub transient and Transient Inductances and Time Constants.
If all the rotor circuits are short circuited and balanced
three-phase voltages are suddenly impressed upon
the stator terminals, the flux linking the d axis circuit
will depend initially on the sub transient inductances,
and after a few cycles on the transient inductances.
Let the phase voltages suddenly applied to the stator be given by
164

where u(t) is a unit step function and V is the rms phase voltage.
From (7) we can show that
165
166

167
168
The sub transient inductance is defined as the initial stator
flux linkage per unit of stator current, with all the rotor circuits
shorted (and previously unenergized). Thus by definition
169
170 & 171

172
173

174 95
In a machine with damper windings, after few cycles
from the start of the transient described in this section,
the damper winding current decays rapidly to zero and
the effective stator inductance is the transient
inductance.
Before we examine the q axis inductances, some clarification of
the circuits that may exist in the q axis is needed. For a salient
pole machine with amortisseur windings a q axis damper circuit
exists, but there is no other q axis rotor winding. For such a
machine the stator flux linkage after the initial sub transient dies
out is determined by essentially the same circuit as that of the
steady-state q axis flux linkage. Thus for a salient pole machine
it is customary to consider the q axis transient inductance to be
the same as the q-axis synchronous inductance.

The situation for a round rotor machine is different. Here the
solid iron rotor provides multiple paths for circulating eddy
currents, which act as equivalent windings during both transient
and sub transient periods. Such a machine will have effective q
axis rotor circuits that will determine the q axis transient and sub
transient inductances. Thus for such a machine it is important to
recognize that a q axis transient inductance (much smaller in
magnitude than Lq exists.
Repeating the previous procedure for the q axis
circuits of a salient pole machine,
175
176

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ADVANCED SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE THEORY

12/8/21 10:51 AM ASMT UNIT-1 GSB EEE CBIT 2 1

ASMT UNIT-1 GSB EEE CBIT

P-1 = Pt Transformation P is “ORTHOGONAL”

12/8/21 10:51 AM ASMT UNIT-1 GSB EEE CBIT 3

12/8/21 10:51 AM ASMT UNIT-1 GSB EEE CBIT 4

Stator mutual inductances

Rotor mutual inductances

ASMT UNIT-1 GSB EEE CBIT

12/8/21 10:51 AM ASMT UNIT-1 GSB EEE CBIT 6

12/8/21 10:51 AM ASMT UNIT-1 GSB EEE CBIT 7

where we have defined the following new constants,

12/8/21 10:51 AM ASMT UNIT-1 GSB EEE CBIT 8

Schematic diagram of a synchronous machine

12/8/21 10:51 AM ASMT UNIT-1 GSB EEE CBIT 9

ASMT UNIT-1 GSB EEE CBIT

12/8/21 10:51 AM ASMT UNIT-1 GSB EEE CBIT 11

12/8/21 10:51 AM ASMT UNIT-1 GSB EEE CBIT 13

12/8/21 10:51 AM ASMT UNIT-1 GSB EEE CBIT 14

Where x = a vector of the state variables

12/8/21 10:51 AM ASMT UNIT-1 GSB EEE CBIT 16

Starting with (35) we can replace the terms in and by terms in i

Where is the transpose of . But the inductance matrix here is a

12/8/21 10:51 AM ASMT UNIT-1 GSB EEE CBIT 17

Choosing a base for stator quantities

Before proceeding further, let us examine the effect of this

let the rms phase quantities be and

The pu power P3ø is given by

where the subscript u is used to indicate pu quantities.

By applying Park’s Transformation converting a-b-c to o-d-q

To check the validity of the above, the power in the d and q

12/8/21 10:51 AM ASMT UNIT-1 GSB EEE CBIT 22

where the subscript u is to indicate pu.

For the synchronous machine the choice of SB is based on

12/8/21 10:51 AM ASMT UNIT-1 GSB EEE CBIT 26

12/8/21 10:51 AM ASMT UNIT-1 GSB EEE CBIT 28

The d axis stator EMF corresponds to field voltage VF

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12/8/21 10:51 AM ASMT UNIT-1 GSB EEE CBIT 31

12/8/21 10:51 AM ASMT UNIT-1 GSB EEE CBIT 33

Incorporating (63), the d axis equation (62) may be rewritten

12/8/21 10:51 AM ASMT UNIT-1 GSB EEE CBIT 34

The normalized field circuit equation becomes

12/8/21 10:51 AM ASMT UNIT-1 GSB EEE CBIT 36

12/8/21 10:51 AM ASMT UNIT-1 GSB EEE CBIT 37

where 73 is the normalized time in rad.

12/8/21 10:51 AM ASMT UNIT-1 GSB EEE CBIT 38

Equation (74) is Identical in notation to (39). This is

where we have omitted the Vo equation, since we are interested in

This equation has the desired state-space form. It does not

12/8/21 10:51 AM ASMT UNIT-1 GSB EEE CBIT 40

Synchronous generator d-q equivalent circuit.

12/8/21 10:51 AM ASMT UNIT-1 GSB EEE CBIT 42

The swing equation is normalized by dividing both sides of the equation by

12/8/21 10:51 AM ASMT UNIT-1 GSB EEE CBIT 43

ASMT UNIT-1 GSB EEE CBIT

The time is in pu,

12/8/21 10:51 AM ASMT UNIT-1 GSB EEE CBIT 45

ASMT UNIT-1 GSB EEE CBIT

The three terms are identifiable as the rate of change of

where Tm is the mechanical torque, Te is the electrical torque,

12/8/21 10:51 AM ASMT UNIT-1