Module -4

FILTERS- Introduction
 INTRODUCTION
• A filter as a circuit that allows only certain frequencies to pass
through.
 They remove undesirable frequency components from a
complex input signal.
•Some of the uses of this operation includes
Suppression of power-line hum
Reduction of very low or high frequency interference and
noise
Specialized spectral shaping
 Continued...
• Filter implementations may be classified into two very broad,
1. Digital filters:
2. Analog filters:
• Digital filters: (z- plane)
Works entirely in the digital domain, using numeric data as
the input signal.
• Analog filters: (s-plane)
 Utilizes standard linear circuit techniques for their
construction.
 Analog Filters
• Analog filter implementations can be broken into two
subcategories: passive and active.
• Passive filters:
 Utilize only resistors, inductors, and capacitors.
 For low frequency applications (DC ~ 100kHz) inductors
size becomes very large and impossible to fabricate on
IC’s.

Figure 1: Passive Low

pass Filter
 Example-1

What type of filter it is?

ANS : LOW PASS FILTER

   
At =0 At =
 Example-2

What type of filter it is?

ANS : HIGH PASS FILTER

   
At =0 At =
 Continued...
• Active filters:
– Utilizes active devices like discrete transistors or
op-amps.

Figure 2: Active Low

pass Filter
 Advantages of Op-Amp Active Filters
• The op-amp provides gain, so the signal is not
attenuated as it passes through the filter.
• The high input impedance of the op-amp prevents
excessive loading of the driving source.
• The low output impedance of the op-amp prevents the
filter from being affected by the load that it is driving.
• Active filters are also easy to adjust over a wide
frequency range without altering the desired
response.
 Some limitations of Active filters
• Active filters require a DC power supply whereas passives do
not.
• Active filters are also limited in their frequency range.
• Active filters are not designed to handle large amounts of
power. They are low signal-level circuits
 Filter as a two port network
• Many complex, such as amplification circuits and filters, can
be modelled by a two-port network model as shown below,

• Filter transfer function T(s): It is the ratio of Laplace transform

of output voltage VO (s) to the Laplace transform of input
voltage Vi (s)
.

magnitude Phase
 Continued...
• Gain function: G(w)
 Filter gain is the ratio, at a given frequency, of the signal amplitude
at the output of the filter over the signal amplitude at the input of
the filter
(1)

• Attenuation function: A(w)

 Filter attenuation is the ratio, at a given frequency, of the signal amplitude
at the output of the filter over the signal amplitude at the input of the
filter.
 As is usually the case, for a given frequency, the output amplitude of the
filter is smaller than the input amplitude, making the ratio in Eq (2) less
than one and the attenuation is a negative number.
(2)
 Basic Ideal Filters Responses
• An ideal filter is a network that allows signals of only certain
frequencies to pass while blocking all others.
• Depending on the regime of frequencies that are allowed
through or not they are characterized as low-pass, high-pass,
band-pass, band-reject and all-pass
Basic Ideal Filters Responses
(magnitude response)
 Practical Filter Specifications
• Practical Low Pass filter transmission characteristics

Response in RED colour is ideal

response of LP filter called “BRICK
WALL” response

STOPBAND
RIPPLE
ASSBAND
IPPLE
 Continued...
• Passband: Is the range of frequencies that are allowed to
pass through the filter with minimum attenuation.
• Ideally attenuation in passband is 0 dB, but practically
passband deviation has upper bound,
Amax (dB).
• Stopband: Is the range of frequencies that are completely
blocked by the filter.
• Ideally there will be zero transmission in stopband
frequencies.
• Practically there will be some transmission in stopband and
are attenuated by at least Amin (dB) relative to the passband
signals
 Continued...
• Following the passband is a region called the transition region
that leads into a region called the stopband.
•  p  passband edge frequency at which gain falls by 3 dB
•  S  stopband edge frequency
• Transition band extends from  p to  S .
• Selectivity factor:  p  measures the sharpness of the low
s
pass filter.
• Finally four important specifications of low pass filter
1. The passband edge  p
2. The maximum allowed variation in passband transmission Amax
3. The stopband edge  S
4. The minimum required stopband attenuation Amin
 Ripples
•  Ripples are the fluctuations (measured in dB) in the pass
band, or stop band, of a filter's frequency magnitude response
curve.
• Amax is also referred as passband ripple and all ripple peaks are
equal.
• Stopband also has equal ripples and achieves minimum
attenuation Amin
• The above discussed low pass filter is said to be equiripple in
both passband and stopband.
 Summary
• Ideal Low pass filter
1. Lower Amax
2. Higher Amin
3. Selectivity factor  p  1
s
Transmission specifications for a bandpass
filter
 Filter Transfer Function
• It is the ratio of two polynomials,

• ‘N’ is the order of the filter (the degree of the denominator) .

• ‘M’ is the degree of the numerator, M ≤ N.
• Coefficients of numerator,
• Coefficients of denominator,
• Transfer function T(s) can be expressed as, (in factorized
form)
 Continued...
• Transmission zeros or transfer function
zeros
• Transfer function poles or natural modes
• Poles and zeros must be real or complex conjugate pairs.
• To obtain zero or small stopband transmission, zeros are
usually placed on the jω-axis at stopband frequencies.
• Example: if -1+j2 is a zero then -1-j2 is also a zero.
Low pass filter
 Continued..
• For this particular filter transmission zeros is at two stopband
frequencies
• Zeros are at
• Since zeros occurs in complex conjugates pair, therefore
• are also zeros.
• Thus the numerator polynomial is
• Which can be written as
• The filter transmission decreases to zero at s=∞, therefore
there are one or more zeros at s=∞.
• Number of zeros at s=∞ is equal to N-M.
 Continued...
• Now let us find poles ,
• For filter to be stable, all poles must be left half of the s plane
• Therefore all poles must have negative real part.
• Assume filter order of the above low pass filter as N=5.
• It will have two pairs of complex conjugate poles and one
negative real pole, totally five poles.
• Finally ,
 Continued...
•Poles are indicated as ‘X’ and zeros are indicated as ‘o’ on s-plane

TRANSMISSION CHARACTERISTICS POLE-ZERO PATTERN

Pole zero patterns and transfer function of
band pass filter N=6

TRANSMISSION CHARACTERISTICS
 Continued...
• Transfer function T(s)

POLE-ZERO PATTERN
 Pole-zero pattern for the low-pass filter (N =
5)
• Transfer function T(s), this is called all-pole filter of order ‘5’

POLE-ZERO PATTERN
Example of pole zero pattern