Unit II: Baseband Digital

Transmission

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 Line Codes or Data Formats

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 Introduction
• Digital output of the PCM coder is converted
to an appropriate waveform for transmission
over channel  line coding or transmission
coding
• Different line codes have different attributes
• Best line code has to be selected for a given
application and channel condition

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 Line Coding
• Line coding is the procedure used to convert an
incoming bit stream, bk to symbols ak which are
then sent as pulses akhT(t-kT) on to the channel
• The line coding technique affect the properties
of the transmitted signal
• Desirable properties are
– Self Synchronisation. There should be sufficient
information in the transitions and zero-crossings to
permit symbol timing clock regeneration
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 – Spectrum suited to the channel
The PSD of the transmitted signal should be compatible
with the channel frequency response Hc(),
• Many channels cannot pass dc (zero frequency) owing to ac
coupling
• Low-pass response limits the ability to carry high frequences

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 Properties of a line code
• DC component
• Transmission bandwidth
• Power efficiency
• Error detection and correction capability
• Favorable power spectral density
• Adequate timing content for self-synchronization
• Transparency-Faithful operation independent of
data

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 Line coding schemes

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 Line Coded Waveforms
NRZ – Non Return to Zero
-Level

NRZ – Non Return to Zero

-Mark (0no change,
1 change)

NRZ – Non Return to Zero

-Space (1no change,
0 change)

Bipolar Return to Zero

AMI – Alternate Mark Inversion

(zero  zero,
1 alternating pulse)
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 Type of line codes
• Unipolar Binary
– binary symbols transmitted
– pulse weightings, ak=0 or A Volts, eg, ‘0’ and ‘1’
– no guarantee of transitions (for timing
regeneration)
– transmitted signal has non-zero mean, so the
channel must be able to pass dc. If not, errors will
occur with long runs of ‘1’s in the data

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 Unipolar Binary
1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1

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• Polar Binary (do not confuse with bipolar)
– binary symbols transmitted
– pulse weightings, ak=-A or A Volts, eg, ‘0’ and ‘1’
– no guarantee of transitions (for timing
regeneration)
– transmitted signal is zero mean (provided data is
equiprobable), but there is still a high PSD at low
frequencies, therefore still a problem with
channels which do not pass dc

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 Polar Binary
1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1

-A

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• Bipolar (or Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI))
– ternary (3 level) symbols transmitted
– pulse weightings, ak=0 or either -A or +A Volts, eg,
‘0’ or ‘1’, that is,
• ‘0’ sent as ak=0
• ‘1’ sent as ak=-A or +A alternately
– no guarantee of transitions (for timing
regeneration)
– signal mean is always zero (independent of data)
– Spectral null at dc means there is no longer a
problem if channel does not pass dc

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 Bipolar (AMI)
1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1

-A

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 Autocorrelation Method to find PSD
• Random signals- Statistical information known
• Autocorrelation R(Ʈ) -Time average parameter
• R(Ʈ) and PSD form a Fourier Transform Pair for
a random signal
• E.g. For polar line code, assuming random data
autocorrelation function is triangle function and
its FT is sinc2 function.

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 PSD of various line codes

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 Summary of line coding schemes

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 Synchronization
• Art of making clocks tick together
• Clock-timing information at Tx and Rx
• Clock signal-coordination of events
• Consideration: Allowance for transmission
time delay

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 Synchronization Techniques
• Bit or symbol synchronization
# Open loop Polar to unipolar conversion
# Closed loop bit synchronization with VCC
# Early-Late bit synchronizer
• Frame synchronization

• Carrier synchronization-To be covered in

passband transmission

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 Early-Late Bit Synchronization
• Approach independent of zero crossings
• Relies on fact that filtered signal has peaks at
the optimum sampling times and is reasonably
symmetric on either side
• VCO generates the clock signal
• VCO gets the control voltage based on v(t)
• V(t)=|y(tk-d)|-|y(tk+d)|
Early Late
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 Scramblers and un-scramblers
• Scrambling-Coding operation applied at Tx to
randomize a bitstream
• Eliminates long strings of like bits that might
impair Rx synchronization
• Some bit synchronizers require zero crossings
in signal for their operation
• Avoids production of undesirable discrete
frequency components and DC in the power
spectrum
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 Scramblers and un-scramblers
• Implemented using Tapped shift registers
• Exact operation depends upon SR
configuration
• Unscrambler has the reverse structure of the
scrambler
• Susceptible to error propagation.

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 Scrambling and unscrambling

At Tx At Rx

5 5

4 4

XOR XOR
3 3

2 2

1 1
S T T R
XOR XOR

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 Frame Synchronization
Need-
• Identifying the start of the message
• Identifying the subdivisions or frames within
the message

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 Frame Synchronization
Common frame synchronization schemes are:
• Framing bit: In a bit stream, framing bits indicate the
beginning or end of a frame. They occur at specified
positions in the frame, do not carry information, and
are usually repetitive.
• Syncword framing: Some systems use a special
syncword at the beginning of every frame.
• CRC-based framing: Some telecommunications
hardware uses CRC-based framing.

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 Sync Word frame synchronization
• Message transmission includes special N-bit
sync word
• Prefix consists of several repetitions of the
sync word which marks the beginning of
transmission
• Frame synchronizer calculates the cross-
correlation between the bit stream and the
sync word
• PN sequence used as sync word
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 References
• Communication Systems by A B Carlson and
Paul Crilly
• Principles of communication systems by Taub
and schilling
• B P Lathi, Zhi Ding “Modern Analog and Digital
Communication System”, Oxford University
Press, Fourth Edition.
• Google search engine

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 Thank You!

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